In-flight Training Research Articles

Examining flight time, cognitive reflection, workload, stress and metacognition on decision making performance for pilots during flight simulation

Despite technological advancements, human decision errors still contribute to civil aviation accidents. This study investigated whether flight time, cognitive reflection, task-load, metacognition, and perceived stress predicted decision-making (DM) performance during two in-flight training simulations with 104 commercial pilots at Bogota International Airport. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the predictors accounted for 56% of the variance. Cognitive reflection, flight time and performance task load emerged as significant positive predictors. Cognitive reflection significantly moderated the relationship between flight time and DM performance, with pilots scoring lower on cognitive reflection showing improved DM with increased flight time, while controlling for performance task load. The study did not find significant relationships between stress metacognition and DM performance. The study emphasises the significance of advanced training methods in improving pilots’ DM, especially for those with low cognitive reflection. Future research should expand to multiple airlines, address gender balance, and incorporate direct measures of metacognitive monitoring.

IMU-based classification of resistive exercises for real-time training monitoring on board the international space station with potential telemedicine spin-off.

The microgravity exposure that astronauts undergo during space missions lasting up to 6 months induces biochemical and physiological changes potentially impacting on their health. As a countermeasure, astronauts perform an in-flight training program consisting in different resistive exercises. To train optimally and safely, astronauts need guidance by on-ground specialists via a real-time audio/video system that, however, is subject to a communication delay that increases in proportion to the distance between sender and receiver. The aim of this work was to develop and validate a wearable IMU-based biofeedback system to monitor astronauts in-flight training displaying real-time feedback on exercises execution. Such a system has potential spin-offs also on personalized home/remote training for fitness and rehabilitation. 29 subjects were recruited according to their physical shape and performance criteria to collect kinematics data under ethical committee approval. Tests were conducted to (i) compare the signals acquired with our system to those obtained with the current state-of-the-art inertial sensors and (ii) to assess the exercises classification performance. The magnitude square coherence between the signals collected with the two different systems shows good agreement between the data. Multiple classification algorithms were tested and the best accuracy was obtained using a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP). MLP was also able to identify mixed errors during the exercise execution, a scenario that is quite common during training. The resulting system represents a novel low-cost training monitor tool that has space application, but also potential use on Earth for individuals working-out at home or remotely thanks to its ease of use and portability.

Augmented reality for training formation flights: An analysis of human factors

Pilot training has been, for decades, aided by flight simulators with different characteristics and degrees of fidelity. However, many studies indicate that, despite the recognized contribution of simulator training, actual flying practice is still necessary, depending on the trained task. This work introduces the proposal of using augmented reality for in-flight training, where elements in the environment outside the aircraft are displayed through an augmented reality headset to create a simulation scenario. The training of basic formation flight is used as an example, as it requires flying with at least two aircraft, resulting in high operational costs and risk of collision between aircraft. In this case, the augmented reality system replaces the real leader aircraft with a projection. In order to evaluate the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of this proposal, this work presents a prototype of an augmented reality system integrated into a flight simulator to conduct an evaluation campaign. We investigate how the introduction of the augmented reality system impacts on human factors, such as stress and workload, as well as performance. Although the results obtained in a simulated environment are not equivalent to those from an in-flight campaign, the experimental campaign performed in the flight simulator provides a way of evaluating the impact on the pilot of some aspects of the proposed solution, such as the performance of occlusion routines and some ergonomic aspects of the augmented reality headset.

Influence of a positive self-concept on the successful in-flight training of cadets

The paper presents professionally important qualities of the cadets of the Krasnodar Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots named after the Hero of the Soviet Union A.K. Serov, necessary for mastering the flying profession, and highlights the influence of the professional self on the degree of their success in flight training. The dynamics of changes in the professional self as a component of the professional self-concept among cadets with different levels of success in flight training have been experimentally investigated. The paper also presents the results of the psychological examination of cadets regarding the stable dominant mental state, characteristics of the psychological and sociopsychological levels of the dominant mental state according to the method of L.V. Kulikov (short version) and their relationship with the level of formation of flight skills. Cadets with a high level of success in flight training were characterized by more pronounced increases in average values on the scales activepassive attitude to the life situation, tone: highlow, stabilityinstability of the emotional background and satisfactiondissatisfaction with life in general, which indicated the formation of more professional self. However, too much increase in the level of the self-concept can lead to negative results. Inadequate self-concept negatively affects the functional state of cadets. In this regard, a personalized approach to the medical support of cadets flights and their dynamic observation, taking into account individual psychophysiological characteristics, is relevant. The participation of an aviation doctor in the training of cadets of aviation schools with a pronounced professional self helps the instructor pilot in organizing a personalized approach; the formation and development of professionally important qualities, fostering a well-founded sense of confidence in their abilities, strengths, and capabilities from the very beginning of flight practice; motivation of cadets to strive to improve their flight skills; and assistance in their awareness that the successful completion of the task and flight safety depend on a real assessment of their professional skills and level of flight training.

Crew Autonomy During Simulated Medical Event Management on Long Duration Space Exploration Missions.

Our primary aim was to investigate crew performance during medical emergencies with and without ground-support from a flight surgeon located at mission control. There are gaps in knowledge regarding the potential for unanticipated in-flight medical events to affect crew health and capacity, and potentially compromise mission success. Additionally, ground support may be impaired or periodically absent during long duration missions. We reviewed video recordings of 16 three-person flight crews each managing four unique medical events in a fully immersive spacecraft simulator. Crews were randomized to two conditions: with and without telemedical flight surgeon (FS) support. We assessed differences in technical performance, behavioral skills, and cognitive load between groups. Crews with FS support performed better clinically, were rated higher on technical skills, and completed more clinical tasks from the medical checklists than crews without FS support. Crews with FS support also had better behavioral/non-technical skills (information exchange) and reported significantly lower cognitive demand during the medical event scenarios on the NASA-TLX scale, particularly in mental demand and temporal demand. There was no significant difference between groups in time to treat or in objective measures of cognitive demand derived from heart rate variability and electroencephalography. Medical checklists are necessary but not sufficient to support high levels of autonomous crew performance in the absence of real-time flight surgeon support. Potential applications of this research include developing ground-based and in-flight training countermeasures; informing policy regarding autonomous spaceflight, and design of autonomous clinical decision support systems.

The Analysis of the Importance-Performance of the Flight Attendants’ Inflight Meal Hygiene Management

Objectives:The present study is aimed to provide fundamental data on hygiene management in inflight meal and sanitation training of flight attendants. Methods/Statistical analysis: An investigation was performed with 260 flight attendants on the importance and performance of hygiene management and the items that are required for series of procedures such as reheating, distribution and collection of leftover food to passengers during in-flight food service. Findings: The average scores of flight attendants on the importance and performance hygiene management in inflight meal were 4.42 and 3.79 out of 5 points, respectively. And there are significant differences in the overall importance and performance scores (P<0.01, P<0.001). The average score on importance and performance was the lowest for the kitchen hygiene area, and the difference between them was the greatest for the personal hygiene area among the 6 areas. An importance-performance analysis revealed that 14 out of a total of 24 items (58.3%) corresponded to Quadrant I that indicated above-average scores on importance and performance, while the item “having the experience of hygiene education” corresponded to Quadrant II that represented an above average importance and below average performance. Quadrant III represented below average scores on both importance and performance, which included 9 items (37.5%), whereas Quadrant IV that indicated below average importance and above average performance included no item. Application/Improvements: There is a need for the special and regular inflight meal related hygiene education and training that separated from service training in order to raise the importance and performance of individual hygiene by flight attendants.

Assessment of the vestibuloocular reflex in fighter pilots with the video head impulse test

Conclusion: There were no changes in the function of the six semicircular canals in active fighter pilots, through the use of the video head impulse test (vHIT). These results suggest that the vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) works well at the high frequencies related to the natural head movements in this population. Objectives/hypothesis: The vestibular function in pilots has been reported as being different from that of other normal subjects. These differences are attributed to adaptation of the vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) or by habituation. These studies were conducted with caloric and/or rotatory tests and were limited to the lateral semicircular canals. The aim of the present study was to verify the occurrence of high frequency changes in the function of the six semicircular canals in active fighter pilots, through the use of the video head impulse test (vHIT). Study design: Cross-sectional design. Methods: The subjects participating in this study were divided in three groups, according to their flight experience. The control group (Group 1) consisted of 20 soldiers with no experience of in-flight training. For the test subjects 14 fighter pilots were selected and divided into two groups. Group 2 included the pilots with 1000–2000 hours of flight experience and Group 3 included pilots with 2001–3000 hours of flight experience. They were all submitted to a video head impulse test and the gains of the six semicircular canals were analysed. Results: There were significantly low gain values (p < 0,013) only in the left posterior semicircular canal in the control group as compared with the subject groups. However, there were no significant differences in gain values between the two groups of the active pilots.

某型空中模拟训练装置方案设计与实现

本文所述的空中模拟训练装置方案设计，是针对某型训练装置功能单一而进行的改进设计，并完成了样机的研制，通过使用证明达到方案设计要求，大大减少了训练成本，提高了训练效益。本文简要介绍具体实现的原理，对于研制类似的模拟训练装置具有较大的参考价值。 As described in this article, the simulation equipment for in-flight training was designed for improving the functions of the old simulation equipment. Model machine was completed, which was verified that it has met the design requirements through the use. The design greatly reduces the cost of training, and improves the training efficiency. This article briefly introduces the realization principles, and it is of great reference value for the development of similar simulation training equipments.

Motion Sickness Adaptation to Coriolis-Inducing Head Movements in a Sustained G Flight Simulator

Technological advances have allowed centrifuges to become more than physiological testing and training devices; sustained G, fully interactive flight simulation is now possible. However, head movements under G can result in vestibular stimulation that can lead to motion sickness (MS) symptoms that are potentially distracting, nauseogenic, and unpleasant. In the current study an MS adaptation protocol was tested for head movements under +Gz. Experienced pilots made 14 predetermined head movements in a sustained G flight simulator (at 3 +Gz) on 5 consecutive days and 17 d after training. Symptoms were measured after each head turn using a subjective 0-10 MS scale. The Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) was also administered before and after each daily training session. After five daily training sessions, normalized mean MS scores were 58% lower than on Day 1. Mean total, nausea, and disorientation SSQ scores were 55%, 52%, and 78% lower, respectively. During retesting 17 d after training, nearly all scores indicated 90-100% retention of training benefits. The reduction of unpleasant effects associated with sustained G flight simulation using an adaptation training protocol may enhance the effectiveness of simulation. Practical use of sustained G simulators is also likely to be interspersed with other types of ground and in-flight training. Hence, it would be undesirable and unpleasant for trainees to lose adaptation benefits after a short gap in centrifuge use. However, current results suggest that training gaps in excess of 2 wk may be permissible with almost no loss of adaptation training benefits.

Aerodynamics modelling for training on the edge of the flight envelope

AbstractAircraft upset and Loss of Control (LOC) is a leading cause of accidents in commercial and general aviation aircraft operations. A number of measures have been taken in the commercial segment to improve training and awareness of this problem and several organisations offer in-flight training to enhance awareness. In relative terms, in both commercial and general aviation sectors, the use of Full Flight Simulators (FFS) and Flight Training Devices (FTD) for this purpose is minimal. A key reason for this is the limited capability and coverage of flight models used in these devices. This paper provides examples of the limitations in civilian simulators in contrast to military efforts that have been using full envelope modelling for decades to enhance pilot training. The paper also presents techniques used in full-envelope modelling, their validity, and a regulatory vehicle that is in-line with current international guidelines for application to civilian trainer development.

Lower Limb Position During Treadmill Jogging and Fast Running in Microgravity

The second-generation ISS treadmill has a faster maximum operating speed than the current ISS treadmill. In normal gravity (1 G), bone loading benefits and cardiorespiratory stress are directly related to locomotion speed. A kinematic comparison of locomotion between 1 G and microgravity will provide information to evaluate the potential efficacy of fast running as an in-flight exercise countermeasure. Subjects exercised on a treadmill at 3.13 m x s(-1) (8.5 min x mi(-1)) (JOG; N = 6) and 5.36 m x s(-1) (5 min x mi(-1)) (RUN; N = 5) in microgravity during parabolic flight and in 1 G. During microgravity trials, subjects performed locomotion using a subject loading system (in a configuration identical to ISS) with approximately 80% bodyweight loading. Kinematic analyses of joint position at heel strike were performed using video software. During the JOG trials, differences were found in thigh angle (microgravity = 54.09 degrees +/- 4.87; 1 G = 64.04 degrees +/- 3.12, mean +/- SD) and knee angle (microgravity = 33.17 degrees +/- 8.68; 1 G = 21.28 degrees +/- 5.22), indicating a more squatted position at heel strike in microgravity. No kinematic differences were found during the RUN condition. The subject loading system and decreased external load throughout the stride in microgravity may account for the observed kinematic differences during JOG. The kinematic compensations for microgravity during JOG may result in in-flight adaptations that are different from expected based on 1-G studies. However, similar kinematics between gravity conditions during RUN suggest in-flight training may provide benefits similar to 1 G.

Mental representation of spatial cues in microgravity: Writing and drawing tests

Humans have mental representation of their environment based on sensory information and experience. A series of experiments has been designed to allow the identification of disturbances in the mental representation of three-dimensional space during space flight as a consequence of the absence of the gravitational frame of reference. This NASA/ESA-funded research effort includes motor tests complemented by psychophysics measurements, designed to distinguish the effects of cognitive versus perceptual-motor changes due to microgravity exposure. Preliminary results have been obtained during the microgravity phase of parabolic flight. These results indicate that the vertical height of handwritten characters and drawn objects is reduced in microgravity compared to normal gravity, suggesting that the mental representation of the height of objects and the environment change during short-term microgravity. Identifying lasting abnormalities in the mental representation of spatial cues will establish the scientific and technical foundation for development of preflight and in-flight training and rehabilitative schemes, enhancing astronaut performance of perceptual-motor tasks, for example, interaction with robotic systems during exploration-class missions.

Bone metabolism in human space flight and bed rest study

Japanese Experiment Module "KIBO" is Japan's first manned space facility and will be operated as part of the international space station (ISS) . KIBO operations will be monitored and controlled from Tsukuba Space Center. In Japan, after the KIBO element components are fully assembled and activated aboard the ISS, Japanese astronauts will stay on the ISS for three or more months, and full-scale experiment operations will begin. Bone loss and renal stone are significant medical concerns for long duration human space flight. This paper will summarize the results of bone loss, calcium balance obtained from the American and Russian space programs, and ground-base analog bedrest studies. Current in-flight training program, nutritional recommendations and future countermeasure plans for station astronauts are also described.

Spontaneous Pneumothorax in Flight as First Manifestation of Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic condition that increases the risk of a variety of conditions including pulmonary emphysema and chronic liver disease. We report on a 33-yr-old male fighter pilot with early-onset pulmonary emphysema with bullae who developed spontaneous pneumothorax during in-flight combat training. A CT scan of his chest after removal of the chest tube showed multiple variably sized bullae and pulmonary cysts scattered throughout both lungs. Serum levels of alpha-1 antitrypsin were markedly decreased. Genetic analyses showed a PI ZZ genotype. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency often goes undiagnosed by flight surgeons, which is a risk to flight safety.

Development of Training Programs to Mitigate Post Space Flight Gait Dysfunction

Following their return to Earth, astronauts experience disturbances in their ability to walk and maintain postural stability due to neural adaptation to the microgravity conditions of space flight. We have previously shown that astronauts returning from space flight show disturbances in locomotor control manifested by changes in various sub-systems including head-trunk coordination, dynamic visual acuity, lower limb muscle activation patterning and kinematics (Glasauer, etal., 1995; Bloomberg, et al., 1997; McDonald, et al., 1996; 1997; Layne, et al., 1997; 1998, 2001; Newman, et al., 1997; Bloomberg and Mulavara, 2003). These postflight changes in locomotor performance affect the ability of long-duration crewmembers to egress their vehicle soon after landing on Earth or following a landing on the surface of Mars. At present, no operational training intervention is available to mitigate postflight locomotor disturbances. The goal of our present research is to develop an inflight balance and gait training program that will facilitate recovery of locomotor function after long-duration space flight. The training regimen we are developing is based on the concept of variable practice. During this type of training the subject gains experience producing the appropriate adaptive motor behavior under a variety of sensory conditions and response constraints. Astronauts will conduct their nominal inflight treadmill exercise while being exposed to variations in visual flow patterns, body load and speed. These variations will challenge the locomotor system repeatedly, thereby promoting adaptive reorganization in locomotor behavior. As a result of this training a subject learns to solve a class of motor problems, rather than a specific motor solution to one problem; i.e., the subject learns response generalizability or the ability to “learn to learn” under a variety of environmental constraints. We anticipate that this training will accelerate recovery of locomotor function during readaptation to gravitational environments following spaceflight, thus facilitating neural adaptation to unit (Earth) and partial (Mars) gravity after long-duration spaceflight. To date, we have collected pre and postflight locomotion data from International Space Station Expeditions 5–9 (n =12) who will serve as part of the control group for this study. Preliminary results show that recovery of postflight locomotor function may occur through adaptive mechanisms that lead to either restitution or substitution of function. Understanding the modes of postflight readaptation has implications for development and testing of inflight training regimens.

Development of Training Programs to Mitigate Post Space Flight Gait Dysfunction

Following their return to Earth, astronauts experience disturbances in their ability to walk and maintain postural stability due to neural adaptation to the microgravity conditions of space flight. We have previously shown that astronauts returning from space flight show disturbances in locomotor control manifested by changes in various sub-systems including head-trunk coordination, dynamic visual acuity, lower limb muscle activation patterning and kinematics (Glasauer, etal., 1995; Bloomberg, et al., 1997; McDonald, et al., 1996; 1997; Layne, et al., 1997; 1998, 2001; Newman, et al., 1997; Bloomberg and Mulavara, 2003). These postflight changes in locomotor performance affect the ability of long-duration crewmembers to egress their vehicle soon after landing on Earth or following a landing on the surface of Mars. At present, no operational training intervention is available to mitigate postflight locomotor disturbances. The goal of our present research is to develop an inflight balance and gait training program that will facilitate recovery of locomotor function after long-duration space flight. The training regimen we are developing is based on the concept of variable practice. During this type of training the subject gains experience producing the appropriate adaptive motor behavior under a variety of sensory conditions and response constraints. Astronauts will conduct their nominal inflight treadmill exercise while being exposed to variations in visual flow patterns, body load and speed. These variations will challenge the locomotor system repeatedly, thereby promoting adaptive reorganization in locomotor behavior. As a result of this training a subject learns to solve a class of motor problems, rather than a specific motor solution to one problem; i.e., the subject learns response generalizability or the ability to “learn to learn” under a variety of environmental constraints. We anticipate that this training will accelerate recovery of locomotor function during readaptation to gravitational environments following spaceflight, thus facilitating neural adaptation to unit (Earth) and partial (Mars) gravity after long-duration spaceflight. To date, we have collected pre and postflight locomotion data from International Space Station Expeditions 5–9 (n =12) who will serve as part of the control group for this study. Preliminary results show that recovery of postflight locomotor function may occur through adaptive mechanisms that lead to either restitution or substitution of function. Understanding the modes of postflight readaptation has implications for development and testing of inflight training regimens.

Muscles in microgravity: from fibres to human motion

In simulated or actual microgravity, human and animal postural muscles undergo substantial atrophy: after about 270 days, the muscle mass attains a constant value of about 70% of the initial one. Most animal studies reported preferential atrophy of slow twitch fibres whose mechanical properties change towards the fast type. However, in humans, at the end of a 42-days bed rest study, a similar atrophy of slow and fast fibres was observed. After microgravity, the maximal force of several muscle groups showed a substantial decrease (6–25% of pre-flight values). The maximal power during very short “explosive” efforts of 0.25–0.30 s showed an even greater fall, being reduced to 65% after 1 month and to 45% (of pre-flight values) after 6 months. The maximal power developed during 6–7 s “all-out” bouts on an isokinetic cycloergometer was reduced to a lesser extent, attaining about 75% of pre-flight values, regardless of the flight duration. In these same subjects, the muscle mass of the lower limbs declined by only 9–13%. Thus, a substantial fraction of the observed decreases of maximal power is probably due to a deterioration of the motor co-ordination brought about by the absence of gravity. To prevent this substantial decay of maximal absolute power, we propose that explosive exercise be added to the daily in-flight training schedule. We also describe a system aimed at reducing cardiovascular deconditioning wherein gravity is simulated by the centrifugal acceleration generated by the motion of two counter rotating bicycles ridden by the astronauts on the inner wall of a cylindrical space module. Finally, cycling on circular or elliptical tracks may be useful to reduce cardiovascular deconditioning in permanently manned lunar bases. Indeed, on the curved parts of the path, a cyclist generates an outward acceleration vector ( a c). To counterbalance ac, the cyclist must lean inwards, so that the vectorial sum of a c plus the lunar gravity tends to the acceleration of gravity prevailing on Earth.

Simulation Technology: A Strategy for Implementation in Surgical Education and Certification

Virtual reality and simulation technology promise to be key technologies in medical education. The flight simulator tech nology that has so effectively replaced live, inflight training of pilots is being reengineered for use in medical and surgi cal education. Despite the considerable enthusiasm for this concept, very little practical work has been performed to integrate simulation technology into surgical education and certification. To achieve the potential offered by medical simulation, developers of these new technologies must join with medical/surgical educators to develop meaningful simu lators and virtual learning tools. This paper reviews the cur rent paradigm in surgical education and suggests a strategy for effecting a paradigm shift that facilitates the adoption of simulation technology in surgical education.

How well does voice interaction work in space?

The methods and results of an evaluation of the Voice Navigator software package are discussed. The first phase or ground phase of the study consisted of creating, or training, computer voice files of specific commands. This consisted of repeating each of six commands eight times. The files were then tested for recognition accuracy by the software aboard the microgravity aircraft. During the second phase, both voice training and testing were performed in microgravity. Inflight training was done due to problems encountered in phase one which were believed to be caused by ambient noise levels. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Only one of the commands was found to offer consistently high recognition rates across subjects during the second phase. >

The Spatial Disorientation Problem in the United States Air Force

Spatial disorientation (SD) in flight wastes hundreds of millions of dollars worth of defense capability annually and continues to kill air-crew. SD results primarily from inadequacies of human visual and vestibular sensory systems in the flying environment; but other factors, such as task saturation and distraction, precipitate it. The United States Air Force is conducting a three-pronged research and development effort to solve the SD problem. We are attempting 1) to elucidate further the mechanisms of visual and vestibular orientation and disorientation, 2) to develop ground-based and inflight training methods for demonstrating to pilots the potential for SD and the means of coping with it, and 3) to conceive and evaluate new ways to display flight control and performance information so that pilots can maintain accurate spatial orientation.