Inflammatory Reactions In Macrophages Research Articles

Translational characterization of macrophage responses to stable and non-stable CoCrMo wear and corrosion debris generated in-situ for total hip replacement

Metal wear and corrosion debris remain a limiting factor for long-term durability of total hip replacement (THR). Common wear particle production techniques for research differ from the actual tribocorrosion processes at the implant site, potentially causing loss of valuable information. The aim of this study was to investigate reactions to freshly generated and time-stabilized particles and ions released from CoCrMo-alloy using a bio-tribometer, which mimics conditions of the periprosthetic environment.THP-1 macrophages were challenged with freshly produced or time-stabilized wear debris. Wear generation took place in a custom-built bio-tribometer inside a CO2 incubator operating with a reciprocating rotation of an Al2O3 ball against a CoCrMo disc. Two different electrochemical conditions with increasingly forced corrosion rates were tested: +0.45 V (passive domain) and +0.67 V (transition to transpassive domain). Cell viability, proinflammatory cytokines, electrochemical measurements and ICP-MS metal ion content analyses were performed.Cobalt/ chromium concentrations were 6.6/ 1.6 ppm in the passive domain and almost doubled to 11.4/ 3.0 ppm in the passive-transpassive domain. Under those electrochemical conditions, freshly produced and time-stabilized CoCrMo wear decreased cell viability to the same extent. Secretion of proinflammatory cytokines were not significantly different for freshly produced and time-stabilized debris.This study suggests that freshly generated and time-stabilized metal particles/ions cause similar toxicity and inflammatory reactions in macrophages, indicating that standard practices for generating wear debris are valid methods to evaluate wear particle disease. Other cell types, materials, and corrosion potentials need to be studied in the future to solidify the conclusion.

Short-Chain Fatty Acids Attenuate 5-Fluorouracil-Induced THP-1 Cell Inflammation through Inhibiting NF-κB/NLRP3 Signaling via Glycerolphospholipid and Sphingolipid Metabolism.

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a common anti-tumor drug, but there is no effective treatment for its side effect, intestinal mucositis. The inflammatory reaction of macrophages in intestinal mucosa induced by 5-FU is an important cause of intestinal mucositis. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of the three important short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including sodium acetate (NaAc), sodium propionate (NaPc), and sodium butyrate (NaB), on human mononuclear macrophage-derived THP-1 cells induced by 5-FU. The expressions of intracellular ROS, pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory cytokines, as well as the nuclear factor-κB/NLR family and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NF-κB/NLRP3) signaling pathway proteins were determined. Furthermore, the cell metabolites were analyzed by untargeted metabolomics techniques. Our results revealed that the three SCFAs inhibited pro-inflammatory factor expressions, including IL-1β and IL-6, when treated with 5-FU (p < 0.05). The ROS expression and NF-κB activity of 5-FU-treated THP-1 cells were inhibited by the three SCFAs pre-incubated (p < 0.05). Moreover, NLRP3 knockdown abolished 5-FU-induced IL-1β expression (p < 0.05). Further experiments showed that the three SCFAs affected 20 kinds of metabolites that belong to amino acid and phosphatidylcholine metabolism in THP-1 cells. These significantly altered metabolites were involved in amino acid metabolism and glycerolphospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism. It is the first time that three important SCFAs (NaAc, NaPc, and NaB) were identified as inhibiting 5-FU-induced macrophage inflammation through inhibiting ROS/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathways and regulating glycerolphospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism.

C-Type Natriuretic Peptide Plays an Anti-Inflammatory Role in Rat Epididymitis Induced by UPEC.

Human epididymitis is mainly caused by retrograde urinary tract infection with uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). This disease is an important factor (accounting for 20–30%) causing male infertility. C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), a protein composed of 22 amino acids, is proved to play an immunoregulatory role in respiratory and cardiovascular systems. CNP is expressed extremely high in the epididymis, but whether CNP plays the same role in acute epididymitis is unclear. At first, we established an acute caput epididymitis model in rats with UPEC and treated them with CNP to measure inflammatory damage. Then RNA-seq transcriptome technology was used to reveal potential signal pathways. Secondly, the turbidity and activity of UPEC were assessed using a microplate reader and the amount of UPEC by agar plates after incubation with CNP. Thirdly, macrophages in caput epididymis were tested by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Meanwhile, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with or without CNP was used to stimulate the macrophage (RAW264.7) in vitro and to detect the expression level of pro-inflammatory factors. Finally, the macrophage (RAW264.7) was treated with CNP, 8-Br-cGMP [cyclic guanosinc monophosphate (cGMP) analog] and KT5823 [protein kinase G (PKG) inhibitor], and the expression level of nuclear factor-k-gene binding (NF-kB) signal pathway was examined. The results showed that the damage of epididymis induced by UPEC as well as the pro-inflammatory factors could be alleviated significantly with CNP treatment. CNP could inhibit the activity and numbers of bacteria in both in vivo and in vitro experiments. Moreover, CNP repressed the invasion, and the expression of pro-inflammatory factors (such as NF-kB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in macrophages and its effect could be inhibited by KT5823. Therefore, we drew a conclusion from the above experiments that CNP alleviates the acute epididymitis injury induced by UPEC. On one hand, CNP could inhibit the growth of UPEC. On the other hand, CNP could decrease invasion and inflammatory reaction of macrophages; the mechanism was involved in inhibiting NF-kB signal pathway through the cGMP/PKG in macrophages. This research would open up the possibility of using CNP as a potential treatment for epididymitis.

Contribution of toll-like receptor 2 and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase to the trimethylamine N-oxide-induced inflammatory reactions in U937-derived macrophages.

BACKGROUNDTrimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is emerging as a new generation of metabolites related to the activation of inflammatory reactions in the macrophages during atherosclerosis. Stress-activation of cell surface toll-like receptors (TLRs) as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOX) is also assumed to be involved in TMAO-induced inflammatory reaction in the macrophages. To elucidate the possible contribution of TLRs and NOX to the mentioned signaling pathway, we aimed to simultaneously evaluate the expression level of TLR2, TLR6, and NOX2 in TMAO-treated macrophages.METHODS2.5 × 106 cells of U937-derived macrophages were treated in triplicates with different concentrations (37.5, 75, 150, and 300 μM) of TMAO for 24 hours. The cells were also treated with tunicamycin (TUN), as a positive control of stress. Normal control group (CTR) cells received no treatment. The viability of treated cells was checked by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, a tetrazole (MTT) assay. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was also used to evaluate the relative expression (fold change) of TLR2, TLR6, and NOX2 at messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) levels. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post-hoc Dunnett’s test was performed to compare every mean with that of the control.RESULTSNo cell death occurred because of treatments. Dose of 300 μM of TMAO significantly increased the relative expression of both TLR2 and NOX2 compared to the CTR cells (P < 0.001 for both). The elevation of TLR6 was not statistically significant in all groups of TMAO-treated cells (P > 0.050).CONCLUSIONOur results provide documentation supporting contribution of TLR2 and NOX2 to previously described inflammatory reactions induced by TMAO in macrophages. In addition, they may clarify the proatherogenic role of TMAO in foam cell formation as well as abnormal activation of macrophages during atherosclerosis.

Lipotoxic hepatocytes promote nonalcoholic fatty liver disease progression by delivering microRNA-9-5p and activating macrophages.

M1-polarized macrophages are involved in chronic inflammatory diseases, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the mechanisms responsible for the activation of macrophages in NAFLD have not been fully elucidated. This study aimed at investigating the physiological mechanisms by which extracellular vesicles (EVs)-encapsulated microRNA-9-5p (miR-9-5p) derived from lipotoxic hepatocytes might activate macrophages in NALFD. After blood sample and cell collection, EVs were isolated and identified followed by co-culture with macrophages. Next, the palmitic acid-induced cell and high fat diet-induced mouse NALFD models were established to explore the in vitro and in vivo effects of EVs-loaded miR-9-5p on NAFLD as evidenced by inflammatory cell infiltration and inflammatory reactions in macrophages. Additionally, the targeting relationship between miR-9-5p and transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) was identified using dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. miR-9-5p was upregulated in the NAFLD-EVs, which promoted M1 polarization of THP-1 macrophages. Furthermore, miR-9-5p could target TGM2 to inhibit its expression. Downregulated miR-9-5p in NAFLD-EVs alleviated macrophage inflammation and M1 polarization as evidenced by reduced levels of macrophage inflammatory factors, positive rates of CD86+ CD11b+, and levels of macrophage surface markers in vitro. Moreover, the effect of silencing of miR-9-5p was replicated in vivo, supported by reductions in TG, TC, AST and ALT levels and attenuated pathological changes. Collectively, lipotoxic hepatocytes-derived EVs-loaded miR-9-5p downregulated the expression of TGM2 and facilitated M1 polarization of macrophages, thereby promoting the progression of NAFLD. This highlights a potential therapeutic target for treating NAFLD.

Peritoneal Cryptococcosis in a Dog

Background: Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic, systemic mycotic disease caused by a yeast of Cryptococcus neoformans. These pathogens cause serious public health problems, as they can be transmitted to humans, domestic and wild animals. In cats and dogs, the main site of infection is the upper lower respiratory tract, however, the infection can extend and affect other sites in the organism, however, the peritoneal manifestation of the disease is rare. Thus, the present work aims to report a case of cryptococcosis in a canine, mixed breed, female, adult, from the Metropolitan Region of Belém.Case: A mixed breed dog, female, adult was admitted in a veterinary hospital at Belém, presenting abdominal discomfort and, after the clinical examination, emergency exploratory laparotomy was indicated, and it were observed disseminated lesions in the abdominal cavity, with multiple nodules attached to the peritoneum and intestinal serosa and bladder, uterus, among other organs. Fragments from the surgical biopsy were fixed, and processed routinely according to the techniques for histological tissue processing. Histological examination revealed a predominance of granulomatous lesions in peritoneum and mesentery organs. It was observed a discrete inflammatory reaction of macrophages, epithelioid cells and giant cells, many in phagocytosis of spherical or ovoid organisms, with a thick capsule and a clear perinuclear halo. In the PAS staining, the Cryptococcus conidia presented eosinophilic characteristics and some of them had the capsule well demarcated, which was shown to be radiated. Also it was possible to see the budding yeast and in the Grocott stain, the Cryptococcus stained in black.Discussion: Cryptococcosis with peritoneal involvement in animals is rarely reported in the literature. Cryptococcus is an agent that presents tropism by the central nervous system and nasal cavity, however atypical presentations have been reported, especially at the level of the abdominal cavity (intestines and mesentery). It is believed that the gastrointestinal tract is the gateway for ascending contamination, or that the contamination can occur by fungal ingestion. The lesions presented a multiple distribution, with isolated and coalescent nodules adhered to the peritoneum and adjacent structures. The literature reports two cases of dogs with intra-abdominal cryptococcosis, in which, macroscopically, granulomatous formations were observed in the jejunum, with lymph nodes and mesentery. Microscopically, a discrete inflammatory infiltrate of macrophages and lymphocytes were observed. Some areas with granulomatous reaction, lymphocytes, epithelioid macrophages and giant cells and, in other areas, yeasts in the cytoplasm were observed. The yeasts were spherical or ovoid, surrounded by a thick capsule of polysaccharide. The periodic acid Schiff (PAS) and silver impregnation (Grocott) staining were used to highlight structures of the Cryptococcus wall which were presented by a strong stained polysaccharide capsule. It must be emphasized the zoonotic potential of cryptococcosis, a disease that can affect both animals and humans. Cryptococcosis in humans normally occurs when the fungus accesses the airways through inhalation and ranges from asymptomatic pulmonary colonization to compromised meninges, causing the human patient's life-threatening condition. In the present report, the diagnosis of cryptococcosis was established through histopathological and histochemical examination of the fungal structure, which were determinant in the etiological diagnosis of cryptococcosis.

Melatonin enhances autophagy and decreases apoptosis induced by nanosilica in RAW264.7 cells.

Melatonin is one of the main hormones that regulate biological rhythms and have immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidation functions. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of melatonin on the autophagy, apoptosis, and inflammatory reaction of macrophages (RAW264.7 cells) stimulated by nanosilica. SiO2 (100 mg/mL, 10-20 nm) was used to stimulate RAW264.7 cells at different time points (0, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hr). Melatonin (200 μM) was added to SiO2 -stimulated macrophages at 12 hr. Beclin-1, LC3, Bax, Bcl-2, and Caspase-3 were examined with western blotting. Flow cytometry was used to detect apoptosis. The levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18 were detected by ELISA. The level of TNF-α in the supernatant of SiO2 -stimulated cells gradually increased with time but decreased following melatonin administration. In contrast, the expression of IL-1β and IL-18 increased after melatonin treatment. LC3 and Bax signaling pathways were activated in SiO2 -stimulated RAW264.7 cells, showing elevated expression of LC3 and reduced expression of Bax in the melatonin-treated cells. GFP-LC3 puncta were significantly increased in SiO2 -stimulated RAW264.7 cells and decreased in melatonin-treated cells. The apoptotic rate in SiO2 -stimulated RAW264.7 cells increased with time and decreased after melatonin treatment, and the number of phagosomes increased with the stimulation of nanosilica and the treatment of melatonin. Melatonin might promote autophagy and inhibit apoptosis as well as inflammatory responses of RAW264.7 cells stimulated by nanosilica. © 2019 IUBMB Life, 2019.

Esculin attenuates endotoxin shock induced by lipopolysaccharide in mouse and NO production in vitro through inhibition of NF-κB activation

Esculin, a coumarin compound derived from the traditional Chinese herbs such as Cortex Fraxini, has long been used for treating inflammatory and vascular diseases. In present study, we analyzed the role of esculin against macrophages and endotoxin shock induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. Here, we demonstrated that esculin suppressed inflammatory reactions in macrophages and protected mice from LPS-induced endotoxin shock. We found that esculin significantly inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) production via the inhibition of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation in macrophages. In animal model, esculin pretreatment significantly improved the survival rate of mice. LPS-induced increase of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in serum, lung, liver and kidney were markedly inhibited by esculin. IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, was up-regulated by esculin. Moreover, the histopathological analyses showed that esculin significantly attenuated the tissues injury of lung, liver, kidney in endotoxic mice. In addition, esculin significantly diminished the protein expression of NF-κB p65 in lung, liver, kidney, which resulted in lower levels of inflammatory mediators. These results suggest that esculin may be a potential drug for treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Inhibit Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Reactions in Macrophages and Endothelial Cells.

Background. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) accompanied by trauma can lead to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and even death. Early inhibition of the inflammation is necessary for damage control. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), as a novel therapy modality, have been shown to reduce inflammatory responses in human and animal models. Methods. In this study, we used Western blot, quantitative PCR, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to assess the activity of BMSCs to suppress the inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in human umbilical cord endothelial cells (HUVECs) and alveolar macrophages. Results. Our results demonstrated that LPS caused an inflammatory response in alveolar macrophages and HUVECs, increased permeability of HUVEC, upregulated expression of toll-like receptor (TLR) 2, TLR4, phosphorylated p65, downregulated release of IL10, and promoted release of TNF-α in both cells. Coculture with BMSCs attenuated all of these activities induced by LPS in the two tested cell types. Conclusions. Together, our results demonstrate that BMSCs dosage dependently attenuates the inflammation damage of alveolar macrophages and HUVECs induced by LPS.

(E)-3-(3,4-dihydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl)-1-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one, a novel licochalcone B derivative compound, suppresses lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory reactions in RAW264.7 cells and endotoxin shock in mice

Activated macrophages mediate inflammation, as they release nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines in various inflammatory diseases. Suppressing macrophage activation may alleviate inflammatory processes. Here, we report that (E)-3-(3,4-dihydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl)-1-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one (DDP), a novel licochalcone B derivative compound, inhibits inflammatory reactions in macrophages and protects mice from endotoxin shock. In vitro experiments showed that DDP suppressed the generation of nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines by suppressing the activation of nuclear factor-κB and activator protein-1 and simultaneously inhibited its upstream inflammatory signaling cascades in lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 cells. In an animal model, DDP protected BALB/c mice from lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxin shock, possibly through inhibition of the production of inflammatory cytokines. DDP inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators and may be a potential target for treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

Indirubin-3-monoxime exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by down-regulating NF-κB and JNK signaling pathways in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW264.7 cells

Indirubin-3-monoxime (I3M), an indirubin analogue that shows favorable inhibitory activity targeting cyclin-dependent kinase and glycogen synthase kinase, exhibits various biological properties, including chemopreventive, antiangiogenic, and neuropreventive activities. In the present study, we investigated the ability of I3M to regulate inflammatory reactions in macrophages. The effects of I3M on inflammation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced releases of inflammatory mediators, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling was examined by ELISA and Western blotting analysis. I3M suppressed not only the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) but also the expression of inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 induced by LPS. Similarly, I3M inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells, including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. The underlying mechanism of I3M on anti-inflammatory action was correlated with down-regulation of the NF-κB and MAPK activation. Our data collectively indicate that I3M inhibited the production of several inflammatory mediators and might be used for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

Ailanthoidol suppresses lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory reactions in RAW264.7 cells and endotoxin shock in mice

The biological properties of ailanthoidol, a neolignan from Zanthoxylum ailanthoides or Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, which is used in Chinese traditional herbal medicine, have not been evaluated. Here, we report that ailanthoidol inhibits inflammatory reactions in macrophages and protects mice from endotoxin shock. Our in vitro experiments showed that ailanthoidol suppressed the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) , as well as the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells. Similarly, ailanthoidol inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells, including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. In an animal model, ailanthoidol protected BALB/c mice from LPS-induced endotoxin shock, possibly through inhibition of the production of inflammatory cytokines and NO. Collectively, ailanthoidol inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators and may be a potential target for treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

Kinsenoside Isolated from Anoectochilus Formosanus Suppresses LPS-Stimulated Inflammatory Reactions in Macrophages and Endotoxin Shock in Mice

In the present study, we reported that kinsenoside, a major component of Anoectochilus formosanus, inhibited inflammatory reactions in mouse peritoneal lavage macrophages and protects mice from endotoxin shock. In LPS-stimulated mouse peritoneal lavage macrophages, kinsenoside inhibited the inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide, TNF-[alpha], IL-1[beta], monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and macrophage migration inhibitory factor production. Furthermore, kinsenoside decreased the formation of a nuclear factor [kappa]B-DNA complex and nuclear p65 and p50 protein levels. Kinsenoside inhibited nuclear factor [kappa]B translocation through both I[kappa]B[alpha]-dependent and -independent pathway. In contrast, it stimulated anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 generation and enhanced the mRNA expression of IL-10 and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 in the same cells induced by LPS. In an animal model, both pretreatment and posttreatment of kinsenoside increased the survival rate of ICR mice challenged by LPS (80 mg/kg, i.p.). Pretreatment with kinsenoside decreased serum levels of TNF-[alpha], IL-1[beta], IL-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and migration inhibitory factor at 1 h after sublethal dose of LPS (40 mg/kg, i.p.) in mice. In contrast, kinsenoside enhanced serum IL-10 level at 24 h after LPS injection in mice. In conclusion, kinsenoside inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators and enhanced anti-inflammatory cytokine generation. Therefore, kinsenoside can alleviate acute inflammatory hazards.

Plant Sterols Increased IL-6 and TNF-α Secretion from Macrophages, but to a Lesser Extent than Cholesterol

Phytosterolemia is an inherited disorder characterized by hypercholesterolemia and premature atherosclerosis, together with increased inflammatory states in some cases. The underlying mechanisms of atherogenesis in phytosterolemia, however, have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we investigated whether phytosterols would affect inflammatory reactions in macrophages and macrophage cell lines. We incubated RAW264.7 cells (RAW) and mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) with sitosterol (Sito), campesterol (Camp) or cholesterol (Chol) at low (8 µM, 16 µM) or high (160 µM) concentrations, and investigated their effects on LPS-induced secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α. We also analyzed their effects on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in both cells, and on the cell proliferation of RAW. At low sterol concentrations, only Chol resulted in a tendency toward the increased secretion of TNF-α from MPMs. At high concentrations, Chol induced a significant increase in TNF-α secretions from both cells; however, Sito resulted in a non-significant increase in TNF-α secretion. The effects on IL-6 secretions of Sito were also significantly less than those of Chol. Camp increased the secretions of both cytokines from MPMs; however, the extent of these increases was less pronounced than that of Chol. Augmentation of ER stress was greatest with Chol among the sterols, and the proliferation of RAW cells was inhibited only with Chol. The lesser degree of inflammatory reactions and toxicity in macrophages with phytosterols than with cholesterol suggests that plant sterols themselves might not be primarily responsible for atherogenesis in phytosterolemia.

Suppression of inflammatory responses by celastrol, a quinone methide triterpenoid isolated fromCelastrus regelii

Celastrol, a quinone methide triterpenoid isolated from the Celastraceae family, exhibits various biological properties, including chemopreventive, antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. In this study, we showed that celastrol inhibits inflammatory reactions in macrophages and protects mice from skin inflammation. Anti-inflammatory effects of celastrol (0-1 microM) were examined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. To investigate the effects of celastrol (0-50 microg per mice) in vivo, activation of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and histological assessment were examined in the 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced mouse ear oedema model. Our in vitro experiments showed that celastrol suppressed not only LPS-stimulated generation of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E(2), but also expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 in RAW264.7 cells. Similarly, celastrol inhibited LPS-induced production of inflammatory cytokines, including tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6. In an animal model, celastrol protected mice from TPA-induced ear oedema, possibly by inhibiting MPO activity and production of inflammatory cytokines. Our data suggest that celastrol inhibits the production of inflammatory mediators and is a potential target for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

Different cell death modes of pancreatic acinar cells on macrophage activation in rats

The pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis is complex and largely unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between modes of cell death in pancreatic acinar cells, the release of cell contents and the inflammatory response of macrophages. Our experiment included four groups: group A (the control group), group B (AR42J cells overstimulated by caerulein), group C (AR42J cells treated with lipopolysaccharide and caerulein), and group D (AR42J cells treated with octreotide and caerulein). Apoptosis and oncosis, and the release of amylase and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) from AR42J cells were detected. Rat macrophages were stimulated by 1 ml supernatant of culture medium of AR42J cells. Finally, NF-kappaB activation and TNF-alpha and IL-1beta secretion by macrophages were detected. Oncotic cells in group C increased while apoptotic cells decreased (P < 0.05); cells in group D had the inverse reaction. The release of amylase and LDH changed directly with the occurrence of oncosis. The transcription factor NF-kappaB was activated and secretion of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta were significantly higher in group C than in group B (P < 0.05); in group D, these actions were significantly lower than in group B (P < 0.05). This trend was in line with changes in amylase and LDH production. There is a close relationship between modes of pancreatic acinar cell death, the release of cell contents and the inflammatory reaction of macrophages.

Licochalcone A isolated from licorice suppresses lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory reactions in RAW264.7 cells and endotoxin shock in mice

Licochalcone A (LicA), a major phenolic constituent of the licorice species Glycyrrhiza inflata, exhibits various biological properties, including chemopreventive, anti-bacterial, and anti-spasmodic activity. We report that LicA inhibits inflammatory reactions in macrophages and protects mice from endotoxin shock. Our in vitro experiments showed that LicA suppressed not only the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (PG)E(2), but also the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells. Similarly, LicA inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells, including IL-1 beta and IL-6. In an animal model, LicA protected BALB/c mice from LPS-induced endotoxin shock, possibly through inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines and NO. Collectively, LicA inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators and may be a potential target for treatment of various inflammatory diseases.

The immune reaction against allogeneic necrotic cells is reduced in Annexin A5 knock out mice whose macrophages display an anti‐inflammatory phenotype

Proteins of the annexin family bind to phospholipids in a Ca2+ dependent manner. The exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) by apoptotic as well as necrotic cells is one major eat-me-signal for macrophages. Annexin A5 (Anx A5) preferentially binds to PS. The availability of Anx A5 knock out (KO) mice allowed us to investigate for the first time if endogenous Anx A5 modulates the immune response towards allogeneic cells. Furthermore, the effect of Anx A5 gene deletion on the phagocytic process as well as on the inflammatory reaction of macrophages was explored. We found that Anx A5 KO mice have a strongly reduced allogeneic cellular immune reaction against primary as well as secondary necrotic cells. In vivo phagocytosis experiments revealed that macrophages of Anx A5 KO mice displayed an increased uptake of necrotic cells. Additionally, an increased secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 of isolated macrophages of Anx A5 KO mice after contact with necrotic cells was observed. Furthermore, the promoter activity of the Anx A5 gene was enhanced after stimulation of macrophages. The tumour size of an allogeneic tumour regressed faster when endogenous Anx A5 was present. These data demonstrate that endogenous Anx A5 influences the phagocytosis of necrotic cells, modulates the immune response towards allogeneic cells and acts as an inflammatory protein.

Surfactant-associated proteins B and C: molecular biology and physiologic properties

Treatment of neonatal RDS in premature infants with intratracheal administration of natural surfactant has become gold standard therapy. Natural surfactant preparations mainly contain, apart from phospholipids, the surfactant associated proteins B and C (SP-B and SP-C). Both proteins are synthesized mainly in alveolar type-II cells and Clara-cells, SP-B, also in the gastrointestinal tract and the auditive tube. SP-B is encoded on chromosome 2 over a region with 11 exons, whereas the SP-C gene is localized on chromosome 8 in a region containing 6 exons. Transcription of both SP-B and SP-C is induced by TTF-1. Furthermore SP-1 and SP-3 are known as transcription factors for SP-B. The main function of SP-B and SP-C is to maintain physiologic surface properties enabeling adequate lung mechanics. A complete SP-B deficiency following homozygous mutations in the SP-B gene (e. g. 121-ins 2-mutation) therefore leads to severe respiratory failure postnatally, due to the lack of functional surfactant. On the other hand complete deficiency of SP-C causes chronic interstitial pneumonitis as well in infants as in adults depending on disease-modifiers yet unknown. Besides the surface tension lowering property, SP-B reveals immunological functions regarding its interaction with different proinflammatory cellular systems as well as other inflammatory mediators, e. g. following hyperoxia. For SP-C first studies have described modulation of inflammatory reactions in macrophages, suggesting similar immune-modulatory effects. Whereas basic effects on lung mechanisms of both lipophilic surfactant proteins seem to be well understood, their immunologic local pulmonary functions and effects on surfactant metabolism require further investigations.