Infiltrates In Immunocompromised Patients Research Articles

In vivo imaging of invasive aspergillosis with 18F-fluorodeoxysorbitol positron emission tomography

Invasive aspergillosis is a critical complication in immunocompromised patients with hematologic malignancies or with viral pneumonia caused by influenza virus or SARS‑CoV‑2. Although early and accurate diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis can maximize clinical outcomes, current diagnostic methods are time-consuming and poorly sensitive. Here, we assess the ability of 2-deoxy-2-18F-fluorosorbitol (18F-FDS) positron emission tomography (PET) to specifically and noninvasively detect Aspergillus infections. We show that 18F-FDS PET can be used to visualize Aspergillus fumigatus infection of the lungs, brain, and muscles in mouse models. In particular, 18F-FDS can distinguish pulmonary aspergillosis from Staphylococcus aureus infection, both of which induce pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients. Thus, our results indicate that the combination of 18F-FDS PET and appropriate clinical information may be useful in the differential diagnosis and localization of invasive aspergillosis.

Role of bronchoalveolar lavage in the management of immunocompromised patients with pulmonary infiltrates.

Pulmonary infiltrates are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients and remain a diagnostic challenge due to the broad range of etiologies that include infection and malignancy. Empiric therapy may be sub-optimal and can adversely impact outcome. Therefore, a confirmed diagnosis is necessary and flexible bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) may be a useful diagnostic tool. Samples are obtained for microbiological and cytological testing, but the procedure carries risk of complications including the adverse events related to moderate sedation. A review of published literature on BAL in immunocompromised patients from the year 2000 was undertaken focusing on diagnostic yield, complication rate, mortality as well as factors impacting these outcomes. Studies in which the majority of patients were supported on mechanical ventilation were excluded. A total of 23 studies (7 prospective and 16 retrospective) met inclusion criteria. This covered 3,395 procedures in 3,192 patients with a mean age of 47.4 years; 60.3% male gender. Diagnostic yield ranged from 26% to 69% with no clear association between diagnostic yield and etiology of immunosuppression or clinical/radiological presentation. Post BAL modification of treatment as an indicator for clinical utility ranged from 11% to 84%; and complication rate ranged from 1% to 52%. No specific factors were associated with increased adverse event rate. This review provides a summary of the data on the use of BAL for diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, highlighting the heterogeneity of patients, significant variation in findings reported and the need for more data to optimize patient selection.

Utility of bronchoalveolar lavage in diagnosing respiratory tract infections in patients with hematological malignancies: are invasive diagnostics still needed?

Background: Patients treated for hematological malignancies have an increased risk of serious infections. Diagnosis and prompt initiation of therapy are essential. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a well-established investigation for identifying the cause of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients. The aim of the study was to determine the diagnostic yield of BAL in patients treated for hematological malignancies and how often it contributed to a modification of the anti-infectious therapy.Methods: We reviewed records from 151 consecutive BAL procedures in 133 adult patients with hematological malignancies, treated at a tertiary hematology unit from 2004 to 2013. Extensive microbiological work-ups on BAL samples had been performed according to a standardized protocol.Results: A microbiological finding causing the infectious episode could be identified in 59 (39%) cases. In 44 (29%) of the cases, results from BAL had an impact on clinical management either by contributing to a specific diagnosis (25%) or by leading to cessation of ongoing microbiological therapy. The most common diagnoses were invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP). Diagnoses of IPA and PJP were based on results from BAL in 65% and 93% of cases, respectively. Several microbiological tests on BAL samples rendered no positive results. Complications were few and mainly mild.Conclusion: BAL is still important for either verifying or excluding some of the most important respiratory tract pathogens in patients with hematological malignancies, particularly IPA and PJP. Standardized procedures for BAL sampling should be continually revised to exclude unnecessary microbiological tests.

Can magnetic resonance imaging be an alternative to computed tomography in immunocompromised patients with suspected fungal infections? Feasibility of a speed optimized examination protocol at 3 Tesla

ObjectiveTo prospectively evaluate a short MRI examination protocol for the detection of nodular pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients with hematologic diseases and suspected invasive fungal infections. MethodsPatients with nodular infiltrates on CT scans were examined on a 3T MRI scanner. The standardized protocol included axial T2-weighted fast spin echo (FSE) sequences +/− fat saturation (FS), and axial T1-weighted gradient echo (GRE) sequences. Long and short axis diameters of nodular infiltrates and visibility were assessed on MR images at least six months after the CT scan, blinded to patient and examination data. Inter- and intra-reader reliability was assessed in two patients. Statistical testing included Wilcoxon-test, Cohen’s kappa, and intra-class correlation coefficients. Bland-Altman plots were created to visualize differences in the measurements. ResultsIn all 13 patients MRI examinations were completed successfully (average examination time 12min and maximum breath-hold time of 8s). CT detected 409 nodules. Sensitivity of MRI was 93.2% when using all sequences in combination; considering nodules >5mm, sensitivity increased to 97.9%. Reliability analysis showed excellent correlations with an intra-class correlation coefficient of at least 0.89 for T2 FSE (95% CI 0.79–0.93, p<0.01) images for the intra-, and the lowest of 0.77 for T2 FSE (95% CI 0.55–0.89, p<0.01) images for the inter-reader comparison. Agreement on nodule visibility was at least kappa=0.95 (p<0.01) for the intra- and 0.72 (p<0.01) for the inter-reader analysis. ConclusionWith an average examination time of 12min, pulmonary MRI at 3T is feasible in immunocompromised patients with hematologic diseases and suspected invasive fungal infections. MRI might serve as an alternative diagnostic tool during follow-up examinations.

PneumocystisPneumonia Presenting as an Enlarging Solitary Pulmonary Nodule

Pneumocystis pneumonia is a life threatening infection that usually presents with diffuse bilateral ground-glass infiltrates in immunocompromised patients. We report a case of a single nodular granulomatous Pneumocystis pneumonia in a male with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma after R-CHOP therapy. He presented with symptoms of productive cough, dyspnea, and right-sided pleuritic chest pain that failed to resolve despite treatment with multiple antibiotics. Chest X-ray revealed right lower lobe atelectasis and CT of chest showed development of 2 cm nodular opacity with ground-glass opacities. Patient underwent bronchoscopy and biopsy that revealed granulomatous inflammation in a background of organizing pneumonia pattern with negative cultures. Respiratory symptoms resolved but the solitary nodular opacity increased in size prompting a surgical wedge resection which revealed granulomatous Pneumocystis pneumonia infection. This case is the third documented report of Pneumocystis pneumonia infection within a solitary pulmonary nodule in an individual with hematologic neoplasm. Although Pneumocystis pneumonia most commonly occurs in patients with HIV/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and with diffuse infiltrates, the diagnosis should not be overlooked when only a solitary nodule is present.

Non-invasive Ventilation in Adults: A Brief Update

The use of noninvasive ventilation and noninvasive continuous positive airway pressure by mask has increased substantially. The main indications are exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, trauma, pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, and weaning of previously intubated stable patients with COPD. In this mini-review article, we summarize the results of various studies in which noninvasive ventilation was applied and discuss the role and efficacy of noninvasive ventilation.

Role of bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients.

To describe the role of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in the evaluation of pulmonary disease in immunocompromised patients. Recent discoveries in this field are largely in two areas: the array of diagnostic testing performed on BAL fluid and technical details that can enhance the yield from this procedure. Regarding diagnostic testing, the addition of new assays, including Aspergillus galactomannan antigen assay, respiratory viral panels, and Pneumocystis jirovecii PCR, has improved the diagnostic yield of BAL over conventional cultures and stains. To improve the diagnostic yield of the procedure itself, it should be done early in the clinical course, with the BAL in the anatomic area most affected, and with a preprocedural computed tomography of the chest to properly plan the procedure. Bronchoscopic evaluation with BAL can provide important diagnostic information in immunocompromised patients with pulmonary diseases and should be routinely performed when clinically indicated and able to be completed safely.

Behind a Mask: Tricks, Pitfalls, and Prejudices for Noninvasive Ventilation

It is difficult to exactly date the beginning of mechanical ventilation, but there are no doubts that noninvasive ventilation (NIV) was the first method of ventilatory support in clinical practice. The technique had a sudden increase in popularity, so that it is now considered, according to criteria of evidence-based medicine, the first-line treatment for an episode of acute respiratory failure in 4 pathologies (the Fabulous Four): COPD exacerbation, cardiogenic pulmonary edema, pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, and in the weaning of extubated COPD patients. The so-called emerging applications are those for which the evidence has not achieved level A, mainly because the number or sample size of the published studies does not allow conclusive meta-analysis. These emerging applications are the post-surgical period, palliation of dyspnea, asthma attack, obesity hypoventilation syndrome, and to prevent extubation failure. Potentially "risky business" uses include for respiratory failure from pandemic diseases and ARDS, where probably the "secret" for success is early use. Healthcare is rich in evidence-based innovations, yet even when such innovations are implemented successfully in one location, they often disseminate slowly, if at all, so their clinical use remains limited and heterogeneous. The low rate of NIV use in some hospitals relates to lack of knowledge about or experience with NIV, insufficient confidence in the technique, lack of NIV equipment, and inadequate funding. But NIV use has been increasing around the world, thanks partly to improved technologies. The skill and confidence of clinicians in NIV have improved with time and experience, but NIV is and should remain a team effort, rather than the property of a single local "champion," because, overall, NIV is beautiful!

Cytologic examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from immunosuppressed patients

Pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients frequently represent infections. This study was undertaken to evaluate cytologic examination of bronchoalveolar lavage samples and the value of different preparations and silver staining. Over 6 mo, 336 samples were collected from 155 immunosuppressed patients in whom both cytologic and microbiologic studies were performed. In 27 samples, the cytology, microbiology or both demonstrated the presence of infectious agents. In four cases, cytology identified neoplastic process. Cytology had a sensitivity of 34.6% for detection of infection, which increased to 42.9% when Cytomegalovirus was excluded. Cytology detected 6 of 15 cases of Aspergillus, including three cases not detected by microbiology and 3 of 4 cases of Pneumocystis, but did not identify any of the Cytomegalovirus cases. The type of preparations did not affect detection of the organism when present in cytologic samples and silver staining did not appear to have added value in examination of these samples.

Cytarabine-induced lung injury: case report

We report the case of a 65-year-old male patient with acute myelogenous leukemia who developed severe respiratory failure after receiving cytarabine treatment. Chest radiograph showed bilateral alveolar infiltrates. He was intubated and underwent flexible bronchoscopy. An extensive diagnostic work-up revealed no evidence of infection. Steroids were added to empiric antibiotic treatment and the patient was successfully extubated in 5 days. Cytarabine-induced lung injury should be considered in the differential diagnosis of alveolar infiltrates in immunocompromised patients. If bronchoscopy fails to confirm an infectious cause, a short course of steroids must be tried, which probably leads to a favorable outcome.

Pulmonary infections in non-HIV-immunocompromised patients

Pulmonary infections are the most frequent complications in non-HIV-immunocompromised patients and portend a high mortality. This scenario represents a challenging task for clinicians and an important subject of clinical research from different perspectives. This review comments on the results of relevant original articles in this area published from 2003 to the present. The present review addresses the etiology of the pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, the use of new emerging diagnostic tools and medical devices in the clinical management of these infiltrates, and the greater understanding of the inflammatory immune response associated with infection in this setting. Advances in diagnostic tests and therapeutic devices are facilitating the clinical management of pulmonary infections. New challenges are emerging, however, such as the growing evidence regarding the important role of respiratory viruses as a common cause of lower respiratory tract infections. Finally, new insights into the mechanisms of the inflammatory response associated with pulmonary complications can help understanding their pathogenesis, improve prevention and diagnosis, and anticipate future therapeutic modalities.

Pulmonary infiltrates in non-HIV immunocompromised patients: a diagnostic approach using non-invasive and bronchoscopic procedures

BACKGROUNDThe development of pulmonary infiltrates is a frequent life threatening complication in immunocompromised patients, requiring early diagnosis and specific treatment. In the present study non-invasive and bronchoscopic diagnostic techniques were...

FIBEROPTIC BRONCHOSCOPY FOR DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

Bedside fiberoptic bronchoscopy is a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of various respiratory conditions in critically ill patients. The fiberoptic bronchoscope allows direct airway inspection, facilitating the diagnosis of benign and malignant airway lesions. In addition, pulmonary secretions or tissue samples can be collected using the bronchoscope and techniques that allow sampling of the lower airways with minimal or no upper airway contamination. Collection of lower airway samples is important in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, in many patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia, and in selected patients with CAP. The fiberoptic bronchoscope can be used for therapeutic interventions, such as insertion of an endotracheal tube, removal of an aspirated foreign body, clearance of tenacious secretions, promotion of hemostasis in patients with hemoptysis, instillation of drugs, and assistance in the placement of tracheobronchial prostheses (i.e., airway stents). If proper preprocedural training and planning are done and the patient is monitored carefully during the procedure, fiberoptic bronchoscopy can be performed quickly and safely at the bedside in most critically ill patients.

Diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients

The differential diagnosis of bilateral interstitial pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients is very extensive. We describe two immunocompromised patients with diffuse pulmonary infiltrative changes. Bronchoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage after orotracheal intubation using topical anaesthesia combined with mild sedation in an ICU setting is safe in critically ill patients and often yields a conclusive diagnosis.

Hospital-acquired candida and aspergillus pneumonia—diagnostic approaches and clinical findings

Bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), collection of bronchial secretions (BS) and/or high resolution computed tomography (CT) of the lungs was performed in 70 patients with Candida and/or aspergillus pneumonia. The sensitivity of bronchoscopy in detecting histologically proven fungal disease was 59%. Characteristic CT signs were found in 11 of 14 patients with Candida pneumonia and 16 of 19 patients with aspergillosis. The more frequent use of bronchoscopy and CT scans between 1990 and 1992 compared with 1986–1989 for the differential diagnosis of new pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients resulted in earlier antifungal treatment (14 vs. nine days; P < 0·025). In the second treatment period survival was improved from 36 to 50% (not significant). Bronchoscopy and high resolution CT scans are mutually complementary diagnostic tools and should be performed as early as possible in the course of pneumonia in patients at high risk of fungal diseases.

Transbronchial Biopsy in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Infiltrates in Immunocompromised Patients

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and transbronchial biopsy (TBB) frequently are performed in the investigation of immunocompromised patients with lung disorders. The risk-benefit ratio of TBB currently is debated, since several authors have found that the less invasive BAL may provide as much information as TBB, with the avoidance of some biopsy-related side effects. We retrospectively evaluated 157 instances of bronchoscopy carried out on 142 immunocompromised patients, with both BAL and TBB performed in every case. Immunosuppressant conditions were HIV infection (79), hematologic malignancies (36), and antirejection therapy in renal transplant recipients (27). Transbronchial biopsy provided a diagnostic yield significantly higher than that obtained by BAL in all categories investigated; diagnostic rates were 77.3% for TBB and 47.6% for BAL (p < 0.001) in patients with HIV infection, 55 and 20% (p < 0.001) in patients with hematologic malignancies, and 57.5 and 27.2% (p < 0.001) in renal transplant recipients. Looking at the whole series, the diagnostic rates of TBB and BAL were 67.5 and 36.3%, respectively (p < 0.001), with a total additional yield of 33% provided by TBB, while in only 2% of cases BAL gave rise to diagnostic information not achieved by TBB. Considering that side effects followed TBB at a negligible rate (2.5%), we believe that TBB should be routinely carried out in these patients once the diagnostic strategy has been oriented to bronchoscopy.

Bronchoalveolar lavage.

The technique of BAL performed through the fiberoptic bronchoscope has, in two decades, provided clinicians and researchers with the ability to safely sample the inflammatory-immune cell milieu of the human lung. Standardized BAL and processing of the lavage constituents provides assistance in determining the optimal care of patients with a variety of lung diseases, and renders diagnosis in selected cases. It has become indispensable in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients, and plays an important role in improving clinical management. Finally, it continues to yield an ever increasing amount of data for the researchers studying the mechanisms and pathogenesis of lung disease. It is likely that BAL will become an even more valuable tool with increasing relevance to the practice of chest medicine in the 1990s.

Pulmonary Infiltrates in Immunocompromised Patients: Diagnostic Value of Telescoping Plugged Catheter and Bronchoalveolar Lavage

The usefulness of telescoping plugged catheter (TPC) together with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in the same bronchoscopic act in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates was studied in 113 fiberoptic bronchoscopic examinations performed on 96 immunocompromised patients. The TPC cultures detected pulmonary bacterial infections in 25 (22 percent) cases but showed a high frequency of false positive results (12 microorganisms, 27 percent). Bronchoalveolar lavage had an overall diagnostic yield of 49 percent (53 of 113 cases). Combining TPC and BAL diagnostic values, 78 of 113 pulmonary infiltrates (69 percent) were diagnosed. The results obtained by both techniques allowed us to modify the treatment in 35 (31 percent) cases. Combined, TPC and BAL show a good diagnostic yield in immunocompromised patients with pulmonary infiltrates. Both techniques should be performed as the first approach in the evaluation of these patients, and be done in the same bronchoscopic procedure.

Pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients: diagnosis by cytological examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

Thirty pulmonary infiltrates in 26 patients were investigated by bronchoalveolar lavage. Sixteen of the patients were on therapeutic immunosuppression for renal disease or transplant and 10 had leukaemia, lymphoma, or allied conditions. A rapid specific diagnosis was made in 21 (70%) episodes by cytological examination of the fluid and in 28 (93%) by a combination of cytology and microbiology. No complications from haemorrhage or pneumothorax ensued. Pneumonia due to Pneumocystis carinii was the most common diagnosis (27%), but opportunistic infections from cytomegalovirus, candida, aspergillus, zygomycetes, and acid fast bacilli were also identified by cytology. Two episodes were caused by occult pulmonary haemorrhage and five patients had malignant infiltration of the lung from leukaemia, myeloma, Hodgkin's disease, and lymphoplasmacytoid lymphoma. In two of these there was also evidence of infection. In seven cases with non-diagnostic cytology infections due to Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, pneumococcus, micrococcus, and Aspergillus fumigatus were identified on culture. In two patients (7%) no specific diagnosis was established by lavage: one had serological evidence of legionella infection and the second had P aeruginosa septicaemia. Twelve (75%) of the renal patients and six (60%) of those with leukaemia, lymphoma, and allied conditions recovered.