Infected Camels Research Articles

Outbreaks of brucellosis related to the consumption of unpasteurized camel milk.

Brucellosis is the most frequent zoonosis reported in Qatar, mainly related to exposure to infected camels. An outbreak of human brucellosis in 14 members of a family living in a rural area in Qatar is reported herein. Clinical, epidemiological and laboratory results from all 14 patients with Brucella and 12 non-confirmed family members were collected from files. All patients reported fever for a maximum of 14 days, associated with arthralgia (6 patients), weakness (4 patients), headache (4 patients), diarrhea (2 patients) and abdominal pain (2 patients). The median age of the patients was 10 years and that of non-cases was 16 years, with a predominance of males (92.9%). Elevated levels of transaminases were observed in patients. A mixed infection caused by Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis was identified by blood culture and serology. The source of the infection was the milk of an infected camel. The outbreak of brucellosis melitensis/abortus related to the consumption of camel milk constitutes a gap in the prevention and control of the potential sources of brucellosis in animal farms. Proper control and education of the population are required.

Prevalence and pathology of Onchocerca infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in central parts of Iran

Background: Skin lesions of filarial worms are usually common in livestock. In camels, the most reported species is Onchocerca fasciata, which involves subcutaneous connective tissue and the nuchal ligament. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and pathology of camel onchocerciasis in Iran’s central desert. METHODS: Carcasses of 144 dromedary camels of both sexes and different ages, slaughtered at the slaughterhouse of three provinces in the central arid parts of Iran, were examined for O. fasciata infection. In addition, the blood smears of tested animals were searched microscopically for the presence of microfilariae. RESULTS: The results of this study show that seventeen (11.8%) of the tested animals harbored one or multiple nodules containing the worm. Nodular lesions were mainly on the two sides of neck and abdomen. Histopathologically, multifocal granulomatous inflammatory reactions were observed to be associated with the parasites in the affected areas. Transverse and longitudinal sections of the worms were observed within the granulomas. The granulomas were composed of thick fibrous walls, the cellular infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, multinucleated giant cells and eosinophils, associated with different degrees of coagulation necrosis and calcification around the parasites. No positive case was found in blood films. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, it was found that onchocerciasis is one of the relatively common skin lesions of camels in Iran. However, parasitemia is not common in the central partsof the country. Histopathologic changes in tissues are quite similar to granulomatous inflammations seen in other cutaneous infections.

Gastro-Intestinal Parasites of Camels (<i>Camelus dromedarius</i>) from Mogadishu, Somalia

Somalia has the largest dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) population in the world. However, scientific research and camel diseases investigation in the country were lacking since 1980s. A total of 167 camels (131 semi-intensive dairy camels system and 36 free grazing systems) were sampled from three districts in Mogadishu citybetween December 2015 and March 2016 to investigate the prevalence rate of gastro-intestinal parasites in camels from Mogadishu city using different coprological techniques. The overall prevalence of camel gastro-intestinal parasites was 50.3%. The prevalence rate were significantly varies between the extensive and semi-intensive production systems (p = 0.000) and between the different districts (p = 0.000). Nematodes revealed higher prevalence rate (47.9%) than Cestodes (6.0%), Trematodes (4.2%) and Coccidia (0.65%). Eggs of eight genera of nematodes, two genera of trematodes and two genera of cestodes as well as Eimeria sp. Oocysts were identified in this study. Dictyocaulus sp. and Trichostrongylus sp. were the most prevalent followed by Parascaris equorum and Strongyloides sp. About 56.0% of the infected camels revealed mix-infection of up to five different parasite species. Moreover, 35.7% of these animals revealed heavy infection. The important role of the camel has inspired investigators and researchers to look for diseases that may threaten camel health and production. However, in Somalia in spite of having the largest counts of camels but in depth scientific data are not available. Therefore, the present paper was to be the first detailed data on camel gastro-intestinal parasites in Mogadishu area and may be in whole Somalia. We came to conclude that gastrointes-tinal parasites were highly prevalent in camels from Mogadishu particularly in nomadic herds of camels. Studies on the effect of gastro-intestinal parasites on camel production and productivity are recommended. Moreover, the intensive system of camel production should be encouraged.

A survey of rift valley fever and associated risk factors among the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Sudan.

BackgroundRift valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral disease of domestic livestock and wild ruminants. In camels RVF may cause abortion among pregnant camels, but is most often asymptomatic among other camels. In this study, a seroepidemiological survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of RVFV antibodies and to identify the potential risk factors associated with RVFV seropositivity among the Sudanese one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Khartoum State, Sudan. A cross sectional study was conducted in Khartoum State, Sudan, in a total of 240 camels selected randomly from four localities. Sera sampled were tested for the presence of RVFV-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA).ResultsRVFV seropositivity was recorded in 23 out of 240 animals, prevalence rate of 9.6 % among camels in Khartoum State. Age (OR = 8.29, p-value = 0.04) and heavy rainfall (OR = 5.36, p value = 0.01) were recorded as potential risk factors for contracting RVF.ConclusionsOlder age and heavy rainfall were considered as potential risk factors for seropositivity to RVF. Surveillance for RVF among camels and distribution of mosquito vectors should continue to better understand the clinical signs associated with RVFV infection in camels and provide public health authorities an opportunity to anticipate and prepare for a possible RVF outbreak in Khartoum State, Sudan.

Modelling the potential benefits of different strategies to control infection with Trypanosoma evansi in camels in Somaliland.

Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi), the protozoan parasitic cause of camel trypanosomosis (Surra), constitutes one of the major veterinary problems worldwide. An infectious disease model of camel trypanosomosis (Surra) was adopted from one developed for buffalo and applied to study the impact of T. evansi infection on camel production. The model contained deterministic and stochastic components and the seroprevalence based on a survey conducted in Somaliland in 2011 and 2012 to simulate and estimate the economic benefits of four different control options against T. evansi infection in camels (1, 2, 3 and 4 regimens). The mean benefit per animal of controlling surra was calculated at US$354 (the treatment of all camels biannually), US$426 (the monthly targeted treatment of clinically sick camels) and US$287 (biannual targeted treatment of seropositive camels), respectively, compared with US$137 for untreated camels. Consequently, the model predicted that the total net benefit loss to a camel herd or village that was not applying the recommended effective surra control strategy was US$115,605 (69.4 billion shilling per annum).

Pathology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis in naturally infected dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in India.

The present study investigated the pathological features of tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium bovis and its diagnosis in naturally infected dromedary camels from an organized farm in India. During the period of the 5-year study, a total of 18 (19.56%) camels out of 92 examined showed gross lesions compatible with TB at post-mortem. The clinical signs and pathological lesions in these camels were studied, and the efficacy of different diagnostic tests was also assessed. On the basis of occurrence and distribution of gross TB lesions, the infected camels revealed two different lesional patterns as pulmonary (n = 15) and disseminated (n = 3) form. The histopathology of affected organs revealed typical granulomatous lesions wherein the giant cells and acid-fast bacilli were occasionally observed in pulmonary form whereas they frequently observed in disseminated form. The single intradermal tuberculin test (SIDT) detected TB in 10 (55.55%) whereas the Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) stain and IS6110 PCR from tissue lesions detected 13 (72.22%) and 18 (100%) of the infected camels, respectively. The study suggests that pulmonary form of the TB is more common in camels indicating respiratory route as the major source of exposure in camel herds. Moreover, very low sensitivity of SIDT was observed which highlights the difficulty for confirmation of TB in live camels.

Prophylactic and postexposure efficacy of a potent human monoclonal antibody against MERS coronavirus

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a highly lethal pulmonary infection caused by a previously unidentified coronavirus (CoV), likely transmitted to humans by infected camels. There is no licensed vaccine or antiviral for MERS, therefore new prophylactic and therapeutic strategies to combat human infections are needed. In this study, we describe, for the first time, to our knowledge, the isolation of a potent MERS-CoV-neutralizing antibody from memory B cells of an infected individual. The antibody, named LCA60, binds to a novel site on the spike protein and potently neutralizes infection of multiple MERS-CoV isolates by interfering with the binding to the cellular receptor CD26. Importantly, using mice transduced with adenovirus expressing human CD26 and infected with MERS-CoV, we show that LCA60 can effectively protect in both prophylactic and postexposure settings. This antibody can be used for prophylaxis, for postexposure prophylaxis of individuals at risk, or for the treatment of human cases of MERS-CoV infection. The fact that it took only 4 mo from the initial screening of B cells derived from a convalescent patient for the development of a stable chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line producing neutralizing antibodies at more than 5 g/L provides an example of a rapid pathway toward the generation of effective antiviral therapies against emerging viruses.

Understanding Middle East respiratory syndrome.

Middle East respiratory syndrome is an infection caused by a novel coronavirus. The primary source of the virus is infected camels in several countries in the Arabian peninsula. The infection is acquired by coming into contact with infected animals, animal products, or with patients who have the syndrome. Mortality for this syndrome is 30% to 40%, and treatment is supportive because no antiviral therapy exists.

Acute middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in livestock Dromedaries, Dubai, 2014.

Camels carry Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, but little is known about infection age or prevalence. We studied >800 dromedaries of all ages and 15 mother–calf pairs. This syndrome constitutes an acute, epidemic, and time-limited infection in camels <4 years of age, particularly calves. Delayed social separation of calves might reduce human infection risk.

Mixed infection of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) and other respiratory viruses in dromedary camels in Sudan, an abattoir study.

This study was intended to determine the role played by peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in causing respiratory infections in camels and its association with other respiratory viruses. A total of 474 lung specimens showing pneumonia were collected from clinically healthy camels in slaughterhouses at five different areas in Sudan. Using immunocapture ELISA (IcELISA), 214 specimens (45.1%) were found to be positive for PPR antigen. The highest prevalence was found in central Sudan (59.9%) then northern Sudan (56.6%) and eastern Sudan (26.6%). Parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV 3), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), bovine herpes virus-1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), and adenovirus were detected in 4.4, 2.9, 2.0, 9.0, and 1.3% of the specimens, respectively. PPR antigen was found in about 50% of specimens that showed positive result for other viral antigens. Twenty-five of 28 BVD, 15 of 16 PIV3, 8 of 12 RSV, 4 of 4 adenovirus, and 4 of 5 BHV-1 were found in association with other respiratory antigens. Results revealed the existence of PPRV infection in dromedary camels in Sudan and present evidence for mixed virus infection, suggesting that respiratory infections in camels might be exacerbated by PPRV.

Trypanosome infection in dromedary camels in Eastern Ethiopia: Prevalence, relative performance of diagnostic tools and host related risk factors

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Chifra and Dewe districts of Afar region, Eastern Ethiopia, to determine the prevalence, agreement between diagnostic tests and host related risk factors of trypanosome infection in camel. An overall prevalence of 2%, 24.1%, 21.3%, 9.5% and 7.8% was recorded with respectively Giemsa stained thin blood smear, CATT/T. evansi, RoTat1.2 PCR, 18S PCR and ITS-1PCR in a cohort of 399 animals. Only one T. vivax infection was confirmed by TvPRAC PCR indicating T. evansi as the predominant species affecting camels in the study area. No single animal was positive when tested with T. evansi type B specific EVAB PCR. There was slight agreement between the CATT/T. evansi and the molecular tests. Among the PCR methods, RoTat 1.2 PCR yielded a significantly higher positivity rate compared to 18S PCR and ITS-1 PCR. There was no significant difference in the positivity rate observed in each gender of camels (p>0.05). The positivity rate was significantly higher in camels with poor body condition and in older animals when tested using the CATT/T.evansi or RoTat 1.2 PCR (p>0.05). Camels that tested positive with all tests had significantly lower PCV's (p<0.05). This study provides further evidence that T. evansi is endemic in the Afar region of Ethiopia. The latent class analysis indicated an estimate overall prevalence of 19% (95% CI: 13–28). Moreover, the model indicated low sensitivity of CATT/T. evansi (43%) and the PCR tests (39–53%) but higher specificity of the PCR tests (86–99%) and low specificity of CATT/T. evansi (80%). This study suggests that improved sensitivity and reliability of the tests would help diagnosis of trypanosomosis. Further studies are required to determine the prevalence of clinical disease and losses due to trypanosomosis.

A study on the status of inflammatory systems in camels naturally infected with Toxoplasma gondii.

Toxoplasma gondii is a unique intracellular parasite with a worldwide distribution. This parasite infects a variety of cells in a wide range of animal species such as dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). In order to evaluate the pattern of possible changes in the blood level of some inflammatory mediators and antioxidant enzymes in camels infected with T. gondii, blood samples were taken from a total of 493 dromedary camels and serum concentrations of inflammatory mediators, acute phase proteins and antioxidant enzymes were measured. According to serological data, no seropositivity was found for anti-T. gondii IgM in serum samples; however, 49 camels (9.93%) showed positive titrations for anti-Toxoplasma IgG. The analyses of data in seropositive animals showed significant increases (P < 0.05) in the serum level of IL-1β and adenosine deaminase activity; however, IFN-γ and TNF-α demonstrated no significant changes in serum samples of the infected camels. In addition, while major acute phase proteins (haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA)) were markedly elevated in infected camels, the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and GPX) was remarkably decreased in the blood samples of infected animals. Thus, during the chronic infection in camels, T. gondii can promote significant rises in concentrations of some cytokines (such as IL-1β), acute phase proteins and adenosine deaminase.

Lack of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus transmission from infected camels.

To determine risk for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus transmission from camels to humans, we tested serum from 191 persons with various levels of exposure to an infected dromedary herd. We found no serologic evidence of human infection, suggesting that zoonotic transmission of this virus from dromedaries is rare.

Trypanocidal efficacy of two indigeneous ethanolic plant extracts (Mimosa pigra and Ipomoea asarifolia) against Trypanosoma evansi phospholipase A2 activity

ObjectiveTo study the inhibitory activity of ethanolic extract from Mimosa pigra and Ipomoea asarifolia against Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) calcium dependent phospholipase A2. MethodsThe calcium dependent phospholipase A2 (E C 3.1.1.4) enzyme was isolated from T. evansi and purified to electrophoretic homogeneity under non denaturing conditions. It was solubilized from T. evansi cells recovered from white albino rats which were previously inoculated by intraperitoneal injection of infected camel blood. Two indigeneous ethanolic plant extracts used locally for treatment of trypanosomiasis were tested for the inhibition of phospholipases A2. ResultsDouble reciprocal plots of the initial velocity data of the inhibition by the indigenous plant extracts revealed a noncompetitive pattern of inhibition for the Ipomoea asarifolia and a competitive inhibition for Mimosa pigra in a dose dependent fashion. The extrapolated inhibition binding constant (Ki) of these extracts were found to be 2.0×102 μg/mL and 1.12×102 μg/mL respectively. ConclusionsThe low Ki values obtained for these extracts towards this enzyme are an indication of high affinity of the extract or the active components (present in the plants) are for these enzyme and therefore, could be explored to serve as a cheap source of T. evansi PLA2 antidote and as well help in designing a novel drug with high efficiency.

Vector identification and clinical, hematological, biochemical, and parasitological characteristics of camel (Camelus dromedarius) theileriosis in Egypt.

The objectives of the present study were to identify a possible tick vector and to determine the prevalence of camel theileriosis in Egypt using blood smears stained with Giemsa's stain and PCR assay. Hemogram and serum biochemical constituents were also investigated. A total of 243 camels, aged 3-5years, were examined. The results revealed that 75 (30.86%) camels were infected with Theileria spp. of Giemsa-stained blood smears. Hyalomma dromedarii was identified as the carrier tick of Theileria spp. Multinucleated sporoblast and free sporozoite were observed in the salivary gland smears from collecting ticks. PCR result revealed that Theileria annulata was the most abundant in camels (60%) followed by Theileria spp. (10%). Macrocytic hypochromic anemia was recorded in the infected camels with T. annulata. Leukocytosis, neutrophilia, eosinophilia, and lymphopenia were also observed in the infected group. In the serum of infected camels, total proteins, albumin, β-globulin, and A/G ratio were significantly decreased (P < 0.05); however, total globulins and α- and γ-globulins were markedly increased (P < 0.05). The activity of aspartate aminotransferase and the levels of glucose, creatinine, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were markedly increased (P < 0.05) in the infected group. In contrast, triglycerides and total cholesterol concentrations were significant decreased (P < 0.001) in the infected group. In conclusion, a high prevalence of camel theileriosis was recorded in apparently healthy camels. H. dromedarii commonly infested these camels and were found infected with the transmissible forms of Theileria, indicating a role in transmission. Camels infected with T. annulata induced alterations in the cellular and biochemical constituents.

The CD markers of camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk cells during mastitis: The LPAM-1 expression is an indication of possible mucosal nature of the cellular trafficking

Studying the cellular populations of the camel mammary glands through the expression pattern of the CD markers and adhesion molecules is a mean to define whether the cellular trafficking pathway is peripheral or mucosal nature. Camel milk cells from 8 Gram-positive and 5 Gram-negative infected camels were examined with flow cytometry using cross-reacting antibodies like, anti-CD4+, CD8+, WC+1+γδ, CD62L, CD11a+/CD18, LPAM-1, CXCR2. The overall results indicated high flow cytometry output of most of the CD makers. The statistical analysis of the mean percentage of the expressed CD markers has shown that CD62L, CXCR-2, LPAM-1, CD11a/CD18, CD8+, IL-6R and CD20+ were expressed in significant differences in either type of the infection. The LPAM-1 expression has provided further support to the notion that the lymphocyte trafficking is of the mucosal nature. The mucosal origin of cellular trafficking has important implications on the vaccine design and therapeutical approaches to mastitis.

Paratuberculosis Infection in Camel (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Camelus dromidarius&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;): Current and Prospective Overview

Camel (Camelus dromidarius) is an important source of meat and milk and an iconic animal of the Saudi Arabian heritage. The accumulative evidence indicated the spread of paratuberculosis infection in the camel herds. Despite the explicit studies on the details of the disease in camels and methods of its diagnosis, paratuberculosis infection in camels suffers from wide gap of knowledge of the disease pathogenesis, camel immune responses to the infection and factors that enhance camel’s resistance to the infection. The review discusses the current available information of the disease pathobiology and the approaches employed in the diagnosis of paratuberculosis infection in camel. Effective control of the disease in camel prompts for urgent innovation of the current approaches in the diagnosis. Efficient policies and inspection tools are becoming vital to tackle the possible threats of Crohn’s disease to the public health due to the meat and milk consumption.

Blood Picture and Selected Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Dromedary Camels Naturally Infected With Trypanosoma Evansi

Additional Biomarkers are required for estimation of the oxidative stress status in camel trypanosomiasis. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine lipid peroxidation, enzymatic antioxidants level and hematological indices in camels naturally infected with Trypanosoma evansi and trypanosome free camels (control). The clinical examinations reveled that all the infected camels showed signs of loss of appetite, diarrhea and loss of weight with poor body condition. Hematological analysis revealed a significant decrease (P=0.022-0.031) in the values of total erythrocytic count (TEC), hemoglobin (Hb) and Packed cell volume (PCV) in trypansoma infected camels (5.0 ± 0.5 ×1012/L; 5.7 ± 0.5 g/dl; 21.8 ± 1.0%) compared to control group (9.6 ± 0.6 ×1012/L; 10.3 ± 0.5 g/dl; 29.1 ± 1.5%). However, the values of total leucocytic counts (TLC) and differential counts were comparable to the control values except for Eosinophils value which were significantly (P=0.023) increased in trypanosome infected camel (6.0 ± 1.9%) compare to the control (1.8 ± 0.8%). Biochemical analysis indicated that, lipid peroxidation level was significantly (P=0.021) increased in trypansoma infected camels as reflected on higher values of malonaldhyde (MDA; 6.3 ± 0.3µM) as compare to the control (0.07 ± 0.01µM). The activity of glutathione reductase was significantly (P=0.025) increased in trypansoma infected camels (1.3 ± 0.01nmol/ml) compare to the control (0.8 ± 0.2nmol/ml) whereas, the activity of super oxide dismutase (SOD) remained unchanged (P=0.072) in trypansoma infected camels compare to the control healthy animal. The present findings concluded that Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels was associated with lipids peroxidation and oxidative stress. In addition, the present study suggests that glutathione reductase may use as oxidative stress biomarker in Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels.

Efficient replication and shedding of MERS CoV from the upper respiratory tract of experimentally infected dromedary camels

The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS CoV) is a novel coronavirus first recognized in 2012 and is associated with severe respiratory disease in humans. Virus has been isolated from dromedary camels in endemic areas, and many camels also have neutralizing antibodies against the virus, suggesting that they are likely a reservoir host. In order to better understand the role of camels in virus transmission we experimentally infected 3 adult, male dromedary camels with a human isolate of MERS CoV. All animals developed a transient, upper respiratory tract infection associated with very minor clinical disease. Large quantities of infectious virus were isolated from nasal secretions from each animal through 7 days post-inoculation, and viral RNA was detected much longer. Although our study design was limited to 3 animals, these data indicate that MERS CoV readily infects camels, which shed large amounts of virus and likely can efficiently transmit virus to other camels and humans.

Clinico-Hematological and Biochemical Changes in Camels Infected with Gastro-Intestinal Parasites

The present study was carried out on one Hundred and fifty adult one humped camels of both sexes. They were classified into two groups, the suspected group (130 camels) and healthy control group (20 camels). Suspected group were clinically positive for gastrointestinal parasites and may be positive by laboratory diagnosed, where the positive camels by laboratory examination designated as' infected group ',while the healthy control group were negative for gastrointestinal parasites by clinical and laboratory diagnosis and designated as 'control group'. They were examined for helminth parasites according to the standard procedures of fecal examination and blood smear examination. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and the effect of gastrointestinal parasites on clinical diagnosed camels by hematological and biochemical parameters. Examination of fecal samples from camels showed 63out of 130 (48.46 %), having different helminthes parasites as, 36.15%, 3.07% and 9.23% for nematodes, cestodes and protozoal parasites were found respectively. Also carpological examination indicated that, Trichostrongylus spp ,Nematodirus spp,Osterotagia spp and Oesphogestomum spp and Trichuris spp as a nematodes(36.15%) ,protozoon parasites (Eimeria spp) were found to be 9.23% and cestodes parasites (Moniezia spp egg) were found to be 3.07% .Hematological analysis revealed that, Packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin concentration (HB), Total WBC count and red blood cell count were significantly (P < 0.01) in the infected camels compared with the control healthy camels. Parasite infection of camels leads to macrocytic anemia. Biochemical analysis revealed, significant elevation in serum activities of AST and ALT as well as serum total protein and BUN level in the infected camels compared to the control healthy camel. According to the above results, we can concluded that, camels in the present study were harboring many of gastrointestinal parasites which exhibited different clinical signs (emaciation, loss of appetite and rough coat), a significant changed were noticed in hematological and biochemical values between the infected and control camels.