Infants Of Non-depressed Mothers Research Articles

Cohort profile: the U-BIRTH study on peripartum depression and child development in Sweden

PurposeThe current U-BIRTH cohort (Uppsala Birth Cohort) extends our previous cohort Biology, Affect, Stress, Imaging and Cognition (BASIC), assessing the development of children up to 11 years after birth. The...

Clinically depressed and typically developing mother–infant dyads: Domain base rates and correspondences, relationship contingencies and attunement

Maternal depression is associated with adverse outcomes in infants. Unfavorable parenting practices likely constitute one pathway of risk transmission from mother to infant, but definitional and methodological variation in the extant literature precludes a comprehensive or conclusive understanding of potential underlying mechanisms. This study aimed to illuminate the role of maternal clinical depression in mother-infant interaction by turning a microanalytic lens on four substantive relationship issues: base rates, correspondences, contingencies, and attunement. Several maternal parenting practices (aggregated into social, didactic, and language domains) and several infant behaviors (aggregated into social, exploration, and non-distress vocalization domains) were microcoded to 0.10s from naturalistic hour long interactions of clinically depressed mothers (n = 60) and matched non-depressed controls (n = 60) with their 5-month-olds. Clinically depressed mothers spontaneously engaged their infants less didactically, were less contingent to their infants in social, didactic, and language domains, and were less attuned with their infants than were non-depressed mothers. Infants of clinically depressed mothers vocalized non-distress less than infants of non-depressed mothers. These differences unveil key disadvantages in the everyday lived experiences of infants of clinically depressed mothers. The findings advance understanding of maternal depression and its effects and have implications for identifying infants at risk on account of their mothers' clinical depression.

Maternal depression during pregnancy alters infant subcortical and midbrain volumes.

BackgroundMaternal depression in pregnancy increases the risk for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring. The reason for this is unknown, however, one plausible mechanism may include the impact of maternal antenatal depression on infant brain. Nevertheless, relatively few studies have examined the brain anatomy of infants born to clinically diagnosed mothers. MethodsA legacy magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) dataset was used to compare regional brain volumes in 3-to-6-month-old infants born to women with a clinically confirmed diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) during pregnancy (n = 31) and a reference sample of infants born to women without a current or past psychiatric diagnosis (n = 33). A method designed for analysis of low-resolution scans enabled examination of subcortical and midbrain regions previously found to be sensitive to the parent-child environment. ResultsCompared with infants of non-depressed mothers, infants exposed to maternal antenatal depression had significantly larger subcortical grey matter volumes and smaller midbrain volumes. There was no association between gestational medication exposure and the infant regional brain volumes examined in our sample. LimitationsOur scanning approach did not allow for an examination of fine-grained structural differences, and without repeated measures of brain volume, it is unknown whether the direction of reported associations are dependent on developmental stage. ConclusionsMaternal antenatal depression is associated with an alteration in infant brain anatomy in early postnatal life; and that this is not accounted for by medication exposure. However, our study cannot address whether anatomical differences impact on future outcomes of the offspring.

Postnatal depression and infant growth in an urban area of Bangladesh

Postnatal depression (PND) has been a common depressive mental disorder among the mothers in a low-income country like Bangladesh where stunting, underweight and wasting are prevalent among infants. The present prospective cohort study was carried out among 297 non-depressed and 103 depressed mothers (ages 18–36 years) to find the association between post natal depression and growth of infants. Data were collected by face to face interview through semi-structured questionnaires and anthropometric measurements were taken with proper anthropometric techniques and calibrated instruments. Postnatal depression was assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and infants' physical growth was assessed by Z score of weight, length and Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC). The overall prevalence of post natal depression was found 22% [95% CI, 21.71–30.29]. Infants of depressed mothers were found iller in comparison with the infants of non-depressed mothers (p < 0.001) which could result in growth retardation of infants. According to the MUAC level, infants of depressed mothers were more at risk of malnutrition (p < 0.001). Early detection of postpartum depression, implementation of interventions, prevention or treatment of maternal depressive disorders and effective strategies will not only ameliorate the impact of PND among mothers but also facilitates infant growth.

Response to Infant Cry in Clinically Depressed and Non-Depressed Mothers.

BackgroundBowlby and Ainsworth hypothesized that maternal responsiveness is displayed in the context of infant distress. Depressed mothers are less responsive to infant distress vocalizations (cry) than non-depressed mothers. The present study focuses on acoustical components of infant cry that give rise to responsive caregiving in clinically depressed (n = 30) compared with non-depressed mothers (n = 30) in the natural setting of the home.MethodsAnalyses of infant and mother behaviors followed three paths: (1) tests of group differences in acoustic characteristics of infant cry, (2) tests of group differences of mothers’ behaviors during their infant’s crying, and (3) tree-based modeling to ascertain which variable(s) best predict maternal behaviors during infant cry.Results(1) Infants of depressed mothers cried as frequently and for equal durations as infants of non-depressed mothers; however, infants of depressed mothers cried with a higher fundamental frequency (f0) and in a more restricted range of f0. (2) Depressed mothers fed, rocked, and touched their crying infants less than non-depressed mothers, and depressed mothers were less responsive to their infants overall. (3) Novel tree-based analyses confirmed that depressed mothers engaged in less caregiving during their infants’ cry and indicated that depressed mothers responded only to cries at higher f0s and shorter durations. Older non-depressed mothers were the most interactive with infants.ConclusionsClinical depression affects maternal responsiveness during infant cry, leading to patterns of action that appear poorly attuned to infant needs.

Maternal depression and the learning-promoting effects of infant-directed speech: Roles of maternal sensitivity, depression diagnosis, and speech acoustic cues

The hypothesis that the associative learning-promoting effects of infant-directed speech (IDS) depend on infants’ social experience was tested in a conditioned-attention paradigm with a cumulative sample of 4- to 14-month-old infants. Following six forward pairings of a brief IDS segment and a photographic slide of a smiling female face, infants of clinically depressed mothers exhibited evidence of having acquired significantly weaker voice–face associations than infants of non-depressed mothers. Regression analyses revealed that maternal depression was significantly related to infant learning even after demographic correlates of depression, antidepressant medication use, and extent of pitch modulation in maternal IDS had been taken into account. However, after maternal depression had been accounted for, maternal emotional availability, coded by blind raters from separate play interactions, accounted for significant further increments in the proportion of variance accounted for in infant learning scores. Both maternal depression and maternal insensitivity negatively, and additively, predicted poor learning.

P01-205 - Maternal depression in british pakistani women and the effect on infant behaviour

ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of perinatal depression on birth weight, head circumference, length and infant behaviour in a group of Pakistani women living in the Greater Manchester area of the United Kingdom.MethodUsing a prospective cohort design British Pakistani women were screened using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (n=714), the Life events and Difficulty Schedule was used to measure social stress and the Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry interview to confirm the diagnosis of depression. Details of birth weight and height were taken from hospital records. Physical and cognitive development of the infants using the Bayleys Scale of Infant Development (BSID-111) was assessed at 6 months postnatal.ResultsThere was no significant difference in birth weight (p=0.0948) and head circumference (p=0.75) at baseline or at 6 months between the two groups. The length of the infants of depressed mothers at 6 months was significantly less (p=0.02) than the infants of non depressed mothers. There was also a significant difference between the two groups in adaptive behaviour in leisure (p=0.043) and health &amp; safety (p=0.049).ConclusionInfants of depressed British Pakistani mothers are not more likely to weigh less at birth or 6 months when compared to infants of non depressed mothers. However they are more likely to be shorter at 6 months and score lower on the BSID on leisure and health &amp; safety areas of adaptive behaviour.

Dynamics of emotion regulation in infants of clinically depressed and nondepressed mothers

Emotion regulation (ER) has been conceptualized as an ongoing process of the individual's emotion patterns in relation to moment-to-moment contextual demands. In contrast to traditional approaches of descriptively quantizing ER, we employed a dynamic approach to ER by examining key transitions in infants of clinically depressed and nondepressed mothers in the context of maternal still-face (SF). Mothers with (n = 48) and without a clinical diagnosis of depression (n = 68) were seen in a modified SF paradigm with their 5-month-olds. Infant states and self-soothing behaviors were coded in 1-sec time intervals. Infants of nondepressed mothers used attentional regulatory strategies, whereas infants of depressed mothers used internally directed strategies of self-soothing to reduce negativity and maintain engagement with mother. This study advances our understanding of processes underlying infant ER and points to possible mechanisms for the development of long-term maladaptive ER strategies in infants of depressed mothers.

EEG in 1-week, 1-month and 3-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers

EEGs were examined in data collected from 348 1-week, 1-month and 3-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers across several studies. Both the percentage of infants exhibiting spectral peaks and the frequency in Hz at which those peaks were exhibited increased with age. Consistent with previous studies, infants of depressed mothers exhibited greater left frontal EEG power, suggesting greater relative right frontal EEG activity than infants of non-depressed mothers. This profile was apparent across a narrow frequency range, which shifted from 3–9 Hz at 1 week of age to 4–9 Hz by 3 months of age.

Touching behaviors of infants of depressed mothers during normal and perturbed interactions

The present study investigated the touching behaviors of 4-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers during the still-face (SF; maternal emotional unavailability) and separation (SP; maternal physical unavailability) procedures. Forty-one dyads participated in the present study; dyads were from low SES backgrounds and they exhibited poor relationship qualities (e.g. poor maternal sensitivity, low infant responsiveness); thus, they were considered at-risk. Results indicated that infants exhibited more patting and pulling when mothers were unavailable during the SF and SP procedures. Moreover, depression affected infants’ tactile behaviors: infants of depressed mothers used more reactive types of touch (i.e. active touching behaviors, such as grab, pat, pull) than infants of non-depressed mothers during emotional and physical unavailability, suggesting greater activity levels in infants of depressed mothers. Negative relationship indicators, such as maternal intrusiveness and hostility, predicted soothing/regulatory (i.e. nurturing) and reactive/regulatory types of touch, even after controlling for maternal depression. Taken together, these results underscore the importance of touch for infant communication and regulation during early social interactions.

Impact of postnatal depression on infants' growth in Nigeria

Background The contribution of maternal postnatal depression to infant growth and under-nutrition in Africa has not been well studied. This study aims to examine the impact of postnatal depression (PND) on infants' physical growth in the first 9 months of life in Nigeria. Methods A longitudinal case controlled study in which 242 women (consisting of 120 depressed and 122 matched non-depressed postpartum women) had their infants' weight and length measured at the 6th week, 3rd month, 6th month and 9th month after delivery. Discontinuation with breastfeeding and illnesses like diarrhoea, persistent vomiting, fever and cough were also recorded at these periods. Results Infants of depressed mothers had statistically significant poorer growth than infants of non-depressed mothers at the 3rd month (weight OR 3.41, 95% CI 1.30–8.52; length OR 3.28, 95% CI 1.03–10.47) and the 6th month postpartum (weight OR 4.21, 95% CI 1.36–13.20; length OR 3.34, 95% CI 1.18–9.52). Depressed mothers were more likely to stop breastfeeding earlier and their infants more likely to have episodes of diarrhoea and other infectious illnesses. Limitations Psychiatric interview was conducted only once (at 6 weeks postpartum), our sample size was moderate and we did not account for mothers who had been depressed in pregnancy. Conclusion Prevention of postnatal depression and close monitoring of the growth of infants of depressed mothers should be integrated into maternal and child health policies in this region.

Still-face and separation effects on depressed mother-infant interactions.

AbstractMaternal emotional and physical unavailability have differential effects on infant interaction behavior as noted in a study by Field, Vega‐Lahr, Scafidi, and Goldstein (1986). In that study, four‐month‐old infants experienced their mother's still face and a brief separation from the mother. Spontaneous interactions preceded and followed these to serve as baseline and reunion episodes. Although the infants became more negative and agitated during both conditions, the still face elicited more stressful behaviors. The present study replicated the Field et al. (1986) study but also compared infants of depressed and infants of nondepressed mothers. The infants of depressed versus those of nondepressed mothers were less interactive during the spontaneous interactions, as were their mothers, and they showed less distress behaviors during the still‐face condition. During the “return to spontaneous interaction” following the still‐face condition, they were also less interactive, as evidenced by fewer positive as well as fewer negative behaviors. Their mothers were also less active. The nondepressed mothers and infants were extremely active, as if trying to reinstate the initial spontaneous interaction. Minimal change occurred during the separation condition except that both groups of infants vocalized less than they had during the spontaneous interaction. During the reunion following the separation period, the infants of depressed versus nondepressed mothers were paradoxically more active, although their mothers continued to be less interactive.

Association between antenatal depression and low birthweight in a developing country.

Rahman A, Bunn J, Lovel H, Creed F. Association between antenatal depression and low birthweight in a developing country.Objective:There is a high prevalence of depression in south Asian women. We aimed to examine the association between antenatal depression and low birthweight (LBW) in infants in a rural community in Rawalpindi, Pakistan.Method:A total of 143 physically healthy mothers with ICD-10 depression in the third trimester of pregnancy and 147 non-depressed mothers of similar gestation were followed from birth. Infant weight was measured and information collected on socioeconomic status, maternal body-mass index and sociodemographic factors.Results:Infants of depressed mothers had lower birthweight (mean 2910 g) than infants of non-depressed mothers (mean 3022 g). The relative risk for LBW (≤2500 g) in infants of depressed mothers was 1.9 (95% CI 1.3–2.9). The association remained significant after adjustment for confounders by multivariate analyses.Conclusion:Low birthweight is a major public health problem in developing countries. Maternal depression during pregnancy predicts LBW. Interventions aimed at maternal depression may help improve infant outcomes.

Withdrawn and intrusive maternal interaction style and infant frontal EEG asymmetry shifts in infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers

The effects of maternal interaction style (intrusive/withdrawn) on the development of brain electrical activity were studied in infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers shortly after birth and again at 3–6 months of age. Infants of depressed mothers exhibited significantly greater relative right frontal EEG activation than infants of non-depressed mothers. Infants of depressed withdrawn mothers exhibited greater relative right frontal EEG activation than infants of depressed intrusive mothers. Furthermore, while infants of depressed mothers with intrusive interaction styles showed a shift towards greater relative left frontal EEG activation from birth to 3–6 months, infants of depressed mothers with withdrawn interaction styles showed a shift towards greater relative right frontal EEG activation.

The Effect of Maternal Depressed Mood on Infant Emotional Reaction in a Surprise-Eliciting Situation.

The purpose of this study is to examine the claim that an infant's ability to respond appropriately to an emotional situation varies according to the emotional state of the mother. Surprise expressions in mother and child were examined both in terms of paralinguistic aspects of surprise vocalizations as well as facial expressions. Seventy-two infants and their mothers (mean age=8 months, range=5-11 months) were video- and audiotaped in their homes. Half of the infants, matched for age and gender, had mothers who reported depressed mood. Infants of mothers with depressed mood showed significantly fewer components of facial expressions of surprise compared with infants of nondepressed mothers. Mothers with depressed mood exclaimed surprise with a significantly lower pitch (mean F0 =386.13 Hz) compared to nondepressed mothers (mean F0 =438.10 Hz). Furthermore, mothers with depressed mood showed fewer associations between elements of emotional expression than the nondepressed group. Infants' expressions of surprise are influenced by maternal mood, resulting in reduced expression of the emotion in infants of mothers with depressed mood. These results are discussed in terms of coordination of vocal parameters in mother-infant dyadic interaction.

Two-month-old infants of depressed mothers show mild, delayed and persistent change in emotional state after non-contingent interaction

The aim of this study was to explore how early infants show different responses to non-contingent maternal behavior according to their past history of relations with their mother. Two groups of 2-month-olds interacted with their mother who was assessed as depressed (group 1) or non-depressed (group 2). Although they received a continuous image and voice of their mothers, the infants were presented either a 30-s contingent maternal communication (live episode 1) or a thirty second non-contingent episode (replay of prior maternal communication), or again a 30-s contingent live episode (live2). The lower percentage of negative facial expressions displayed during replay by infants of depressed mothers suggests on one hand that they are less sensitive to a non-contingent maternal behavior than infants of non-depressed mothers. However, within group comparisons demonstrate a notable difference: while infants of non-depressed mothers show a U curve of smile, infants of depressed mothers show decreasing smile throughout the three episodes. Taken together, these results plead in favour of an other profile of sensitivity displayed by infants of depressed mothers. Instead of the strong but short-term reaction of infants of non-depressed mothers, the response of infants of depressed mothers appeared to be a mild, delayed and more persistent change in emotional state. These findings are discussed in the light of possible cognitive and social incidence of passive avoidance of stressful events in infants of depressed mothers.

Teasing play in infancy: Comparing mothers with and without self-reported depressed mood during play with their babies

Research suggests that some forms of maternal play can be interpreted positively leading to healthy development or have negative effects leading to emotional and cognitive vulnerability in children and adolescents. The purpose of this study is to relate maternal mood state to mothers' play interactions with their infants and the infants' emotional reactions to these play interactions. Fifteen mothers reporting depressed mood (as measured by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale [EDPS]; mean = 12.6) and their infants (mean age 7.9 months [range 5 – 11 months], 2 girls, 13 boys) and 15 non-depressed mothers (EPDS mean = 4.4) were video-taped in their homes while playing with their infants (mean age 6.7months [range 6 – 10 months], 8 girls, 7 boys) using a soft toy. Maternal and infant touch behaviours, as well as gaze and emotional expressions were coded frame by frame. There was an association between psychological well-being and touch behaviour by mothers as well as gaze-direction and emotional expressions by their infants. Non-depressed mothers nestled the toy into the baby significantly more frequently compared with mothers reporting depressed mood. Infants of mothers with depressed mood looked significantly less frequently at their mothers and showed significantly more negative expressions than infants of non-depressed mothers. These differences in maternal play interactions indicate that mothers with depressed mood play with their babies in such a way as to elicit negative emotional reactions as well as gaze avoidance from their baby. The effects of infant gender on maternal behaviour are also discussed.

Infants of depressed mothers facing a mirror versus their mother

Behavioral responses were assessed in 3–6-month-old infants of depressed mothers placed face-to-face in front of a mirror versus in front of their mother. Infants showed more positive behavior (smiling) with their mothers versus the mirror but also showed more negative behavior (gaze aversion, distress brow and crying) during the mother condition. These differences highlight the infants’ greater affective responses (both positive and negative) to their mother versus the mirror. Equivalent amounts of vocalizing to the mother and mirror suggested that the mirror does elicit social behavior, with the infants perhaps enjoying watching themselves talk. Group differences suggested that the infants of depressed mothers showed less gaze aversion with their mothers, perhaps because their mothers were less interactive. When in front of the mirror, they vocalized more and gaze averted less than the infants of nondepressed mothers, suggesting that the mirror was particularly effective in eliciting vocalizations in infants of depressed mothers.

EEG responses to mock facial expressions by infants of depressed mothers

EEG responses to mothers’ and strangers’ mock facial expressions (happy, surprised and sad) during a peek-a-boo game were recorded in 60, 3- to 6-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers. The infants of depressed mothers exhibited less positive and more negative affect and were less likely to look at the facial expressions displayed by both their mother and a stranger. The infants of depressed mothers showed greater relative right frontal EEG asymmetry than the infants of non-depressed mothers throughout the different expressions of the mothers and strangers and showed elevated salivary cortisol levels after the session. Both groups of infants showed significantly greater right frontal asymmetry during their mothers’ and stranger’s sad versus happy expression. In addition, infants showed greater right frontal EEG asymmetry during the stranger’s surprised versus happy expression.

EEG responses to mock facial expressions by infants of depressed mothers

EEG responses to mothers’ and strangers’ mock facial expressions (happy, surprised and sad) during a peek-a-boo game were recorded in 60, 3- to 6-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers. The infants of depressed mothers exhibited less positive and more negative affect and were less likely to look at the facial expressions displayed by both their mother and a stranger. The infants of depressed mothers showed greater relative right frontal EEG asymmetry than the infants of non-depressed mothers throughout the different expressions of the mothers and strangers and showed elevated salivary cortisol levels after the session. Both groups of infants showed significantly greater right frontal asymmetry during their mothers’ and stranger’s sad versus happy expression. In addition, infants showed greater right frontal EEG asymmetry during the stranger’s surprised versus happy expression.