Infant Fear Research Articles

Intergenerational transmission of maternal prenatal anxiety to infant fearfulness: the mediating role of mother-infant bonding

Abstract Purpose This study is the first to directly investigate the mechanistic role of maternal bonding toward her infant in the early intergenerational pathway of risk from maternal anxiety to infant fearfulness. Methods Mothers (N = 216; Mage=32.78) reported on their anxiety and bonding at four time-points between pregnancy and ten-months postpartum. At four and ten-months postpartum, infant temperamental precursors of anxiety were assessed through maternal report and observation. Results Cross-lagged longitudinal path modeling indicated a significant link between prenatal maternal anxiety and infant temperamental fearful withdrawal at 10-months postpartum (R2 = 0.117), which was fully explained by decreased maternal bonding at one-month postpartum and increased infant temperamental negative reactivity at 4-months postpartum. Conclusion Results support the need to foster maternal bonding in preventive perinatal care, particularly in the context of maternal anxiety.

The roles of sensory hyperreactivity and hyporeactivity in understanding infant fearfulness and emerging autistic traits.

Existing evidence indicates that atypical sensory reactivity is a core characteristic of autism, and has been linked to both anxiety (and its putative infant precursor of fearfulness) and repetitive behaviours. However, most work has used cross-sectional designs and not considered the differential roles of hyperreactivity and hyporeactivity to sensory inputs, and is thus limited in specificity. 161 infants with and without an elevated likelihood of developing autism and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were followed from 10 to 36 months of age. Parents rated an infant precursor of later anxiety (fearfulness) using the Infant Behaviour Questionnaire at 10 and 14 months, and the Early Childhood Behavioural Questionnaire at 24 months, and sensory hyperreactivity and hyporeactivity at 10, 14 and 24 months using the Infant Toddler Sensory Profile. Domains of autistic traits (restrictive and repetitive behaviours; RRB, and social communication interaction, SCI) were assessed using the parent-rated Social Responsiveness Scale at 36 months. Cross-lagged models tested (a) paths between fearfulness and hyperreactivity at 10-24 months, and from fearfulness and hyperreactivity to later autism traits, (b) the specificity of hyperreactivity effects by including hyporeactivity as a correlated predictor. Hyperreactivity at 14 months was positively associated with fearfulness at 24 months, and hyperreactivity at 24 months was positively associated with SCI and RRB at 36 months. When hyporeactivity was included in the model, paths between hyperreactivity and fearfulness remained, but paths between hyperreactivity and autistic traits became nonsignificant. Our findings indicate that alterations in early sensory reactivity may increase the likelihood of showing fearfulness in infancy, and relate to later social interactions and repetitive behaviours, particularly in individuals with a family history of autism or ADHD.

Infant fearful distress, parent intrusiveness, and adversity in families experiencing homelessness

Infants experiencing homelessness face risk for developing mental health problems in the future. Parents residing in shelters experience adverse events at elevated rates compared to non-homeless individuals, which can impact their infants during a time of rapid development depending on how the parent copes. For some, trauma linked to these events may manifest in an intrusive parenting style that interferes with the child’s developing capacity for self-regulation. We utilized a sample of 60 parent-infant dyads recruited while residing in emergency homeless shelters to evaluate associations among parents’ history of adversity, intrusive parenting behaviors, and infants’ fearful distress. Observed parent intrusiveness during a free play interaction was significantly associated with infant fearfulness observed in a separate behavioral task during which infants viewed a series of masks. Furthermore, there was a moderating effect for parent history of adversity such that the association between parent intrusiveness and infant fearful distress was stronger among parents with more past experiences of adversity.

Mothers' borderline personality disorder symptom severity and accuracy in predicting infant distress.

Maternal borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms have been found to relate to parenting difficulties that subsequently predict children's maladjustment. One specific area of difficulty for mothers with BPD symptoms surrounds responses to infant distress. Based in mentalization theories of BPD, the current study tested the relation between BPD symptom severity and maternal accuracy in predicting infant distress. Infant biological sex was also tested as a moderator. Participants included 101 mothers, varying in self-reported BPD symptom severity, and their 12- to 23-month-old infants. At a laboratory visit, mothers responded to structured questions about their predictions for infant distress behaviors in fear- and anger-eliciting tasks, which were then observed. Maternal accuracy represented the statistical association between maternal predictions and infant distress behaviors. Maternal accuracy did not differ between infant fear and anger. For male infants, mothers' higher BPD symptom severity related to lower accuracy across fear and anger contexts. For female infants, BPD symptom severity did not influence maternal accuracy. Results are discussed in relation to existing theories of emotional disruption in the relationships between mothers with BPD symptoms and their infants. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

How much maternal sensitivity is adaptive: Fear temperament, high-intensity fear, and preschooler's behavioral problems

BackgroundThe current study focused on the role of temperament and parenting in contributing to high-intensity fear during toddlerhood and its impact on behavioral problems in the preschool age. MethodsA sample of 1292 low-income rural families were recruited, where infant fear temperament at 6 months old and toddler's fear expressions at 15 months old were observed and assessed. Maternal sensitivity was also observed and assessed at both time points. Mothers rated their children's behavioral problems at 36 months old. ResultsA path model revealed quadratic effects of maternal sensitivity on the development of high-intensity fear at 15 months, in that a moderate level of maternal sensitivity was linked with higher high-intensity fear for children with extra high temperamental fear, while high and low levels of maternal sensitivity were linked with higher high-intensity fear for those with extra low temperamental fear. A quadratic effect was also found, where high maternal sensitivity channeled toddlers with low normal fear towards internalizing behaviors at 36 months. Finally, a quadratic effect suggested that high maternal sensitivity increased the risks for externalizing behaviors at 36 months for toddlers with high versus low levels of high-intensity fear. LimitationsThe low-income, rural community sample limited study generalizability. ConclusionsThese findings speak to the complexity of person-environment interactions in the development of fear and associated behavioral problems, with implications for future research and intervention efforts.

The dark side of fear expression: Infant crying as a trigger for maladaptive parental responses.

While infant fearfulness, and its expression via crying, may have been adaptive in our evolutionary history, for modern parents, crying can be challenging to respond to. We discuss how and why prolonged crying can raise the risk for difficulties with adult care. Given that crying is the most-reported trigger for shaking, its potential to elicit maladaptive responses should not be overlooked.

Heightened fearfulness as a developmental adaptation.

Although we find many merits to Grossmann's fearful ape hypothesis, unlike Grossmann, we see heightened fearfulness as an ontogenetic adaptation, signaling helplessness and fostering caregiving during infancy, which subsequently became exapted to promote cooperation. We also argue that, rather than being the "breeding ground" for enhanced infant fearfulness, cooperative care is more likely the evolved product of enhanced fearfulness.

Mothers' Emotion Regulation and Negative Affect in Infants: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Knowledge of Parenting Practices.

Early in development, children rely heavily on caregivers for assistance with the regulation of negative emotion. As such, it is important to understand parent characteristics that influence caregiver ability to attenuate infant negative affect and mediating factors by which this process may unfold. This study examined the relationship between parental emotional regulation strategies (ERs) and infants' negative affect and tested the mediating effects of parenting self-efficacy and knowledge of this association. Results indicated that higher maternal reappraisal was related to higher maternal self-efficacy whereas higher maternal suppression was related to lower knowledge of parenting practices. Maternal suppression was negatively related to infant frustration; maternal self-efficacy was positively related to infant falling reactivity and negatively related to sadness. There was a significant indirect effect between maternal reappraisal and infant falling reactivity through maternal self-efficacy. The mediation result suggests that mothers with higher use of reappraisal show higher self-efficacy and have infants with higher falling reactivity. Maternal knowledge about parenting practices was related to lower infant fear. Maternal knowledge of parenting practices did not mediate any associations between maternal emotion regulation strategies and infant negative affect. These findings contribute to the understanding early protective parenting mechanisms for supporting the external regulation of negative affect in infants and also in designing and implementing preventive parenting programs focused on the emotional needs of parents and children.

White matter microstructure predicts individual differences in infant fear (But not anger and sadness).

We examine neural correlates of discrete expressions of negative emotionality in infants to determine whether the microstructure of white matter tracts at 1 month of age foreshadows the expression of specific negative emotions later in infancy. Infants (n=103) underwent neuroimaging at 1-month, and mothers reported on infant fear, sadness, and anger at 6, 12, and 18 months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. Levels and developmental change in fear, sadness, and anger were estimated from mother reports. Relations between MRI and infant emotion indicated that 1-month white matter microstructure was differentially associated with level and change in infant fear, but not anger or sadness, in the left stria terminalis (p<0.05, corrected), a tract that connects frontal and tempo-parietal regions and has been implicated in emerging psychopathology in adults. More relaxed constraints on significance (p<0.10, corrected) revealed that fear was associated with lower white matter microstructure bilaterally in the inferior portion of the stria terminalis and regions within the sagittal stratum. Results suggest the neurobehavioral uniqueness of fear as early as 1 month of age in regions that are associated with potential longer-term outcomes. This work highlights the early neural precursors of fearfulness, adding to literature explaining the psychobiological accounts of affective development. HIGHLIGHTS: Expressions of infant fear and anger, but not sadness, increase from 6 to 18 months of age. Early neural architecture in the stria terminalis is related to higher initial levels and increasing fear in infancy. After accounting for fear, anger and sadness do not appear to be associated with differences in early white matter microstructure. This work identifies early neural precursors of fearfulness as early as 1-month of age.

Maternal care, infant fear memory retention, and the moderating role of variations in separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations.

Individual differences in parental care predict variations in offspring anxiety across species. Here, we examined whether between- and within-litter variations in maternal licking (a measure of rodent maternal care) predict infant rats' retention of an aversive association (a predictor of later anxiety-like behavior) and whether the relationship between maternal licking and infant fear memory is moderated by variations in infants' solicitation of maternal care. Unique marks were drawn on each pup, coded for fading, and touched up daily across the first week of life. Mark fading was used as an index of maternal licking where greater fading suggested more maternal licking the previous day. Separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) were recorded to measure individual differences in solicitation of maternal care. Infants were fear conditioned at postnatal day (P) 17 and tested for fear of the conditioned stimulus (CS) 1 week later. Across litters, mark fading negatively predicted CS-elicited fear at test for male, but not female, offspring. This relationship was moderated by number of USVs emitted at P1, such that mark fading only predicted CS-elicited fear for males that emitted a low number of USVs. These results suggest that offspring solicitation may moderate the relationship between maternal care and fear/anxiety.

Development of Infant High-Intensity Fear and Fear Regulation from 6 to 24 Months: Maternal Sensitivity and Depressive Symptoms as Moderators.

This study tested bidirectional relations between infant high-intensity fear and fear regulation over 1.5years, and maternal sensitivity and depressive symptoms as moderators. Participants were 1,292 mother-infant pairs prospectively assessed at three times when infants were 6, 15, and 24months old. Infant high-intensity fear and fear regulation (avoidance, orienting to mother, attention regulation, and self-soothing) were observed during the Mask Task at each of these time points. Likewise, mothers reported their depressive symptoms, and their sensitivity was observed in a separate mother-child interaction task at each time point. Conditional multilevel growth models revealed that highly avoidant infants exhibited less initial high-intensity fear, but faster growth in high-intensity fear over time. Furthermore, highly avoidant infants exhibited more concurrent high-intensity fear when their mothers demonstrated low sensitivity. Unexpectedly, when their mothers were highly depressed, infants who used more attention regulation demonstrated more rapid growth of high-intensity fear over time. Finally, when their mothers were not depressed, infants exhibiting more high-intensity fear oriented more to their mothers concurrently. When their mothers reported high depressive symptoms over time, infants with more high-intensity fear initially oriented less to their mothers but more rapidly increased orienting to their mothers over time. Findings reveal the interplay between infant and maternal factors over time in development of infant high-intensity fear. In particular, maternal sensitivity protected highly fearful infants by rapidly reducing fear reactivity despite infant avoidance. In contrast, high maternal depressive symptoms introduced both immediate and enduring risks for infant fear development. Clinical implications are discussed.

Trajectory of Maternal Postpartum Depressive Symptoms Moderates the Bidirectional Associations between Maternal Intrusive Parenting and Infant Fear

BackgroundThe association between maternal intrusive parenting and infant fear remains poorly understood, especially in the persistence of maternal postpartum depression. The current study investigated the moderating role of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms on the bidirectional link between maternal intrusive parenting and infant fear, among a sample of low-income, rural mothers. Methods. A sample of 1,292 mothers reported their depressive symptoms at 2, 6, 15, and 24 months postpartum, whereas their intrusive parenting behavior and infant fear were observed at infants age 6, 15, and 24 months. Results. Latent growth curve models revealed that maternal postpartum depressive symptoms increased over 2 years. From 6 months to 24 months, maternal intrusive parenting remained stable, and infant fear increased. Moderation analyses revealed that when mothers had low levels of initial depressive symptoms, a higher initial level of maternal intrusive parenting predicted a faster increase of infant fear. Additionally, when mothers’ depressive symptoms showed a fast increase, a higher initial level of infant fear predicted a faster reduction in maternal intrusive parenting. Limitations. The low-income, rural community sample limited the generalizability of the current findings. Conclusions. The interplay between maternal intrusive parenting and infant fear supports a transactional model of child development in the context of maternal depression, with implications for future research and intervention efforts.

It’s all about who you know: Memory retention of a rat’s cagemates during infancy negatively predicts adulthood hippocampal FGF2

Recent research has demonstrated that individual differences in infant fear memory positively predict adulthood anxiety-like behavior and conditioned fear expression. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying this relationship and the effect of environmental (e.g., social) influences on the stability of this relationship have not been explored. In the present study, we examined whether individual differences in infant fear memory predict levels of endogenous fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2; a biomarker of fear/anxiety) in adulthood, and whether the mean memory retention of a rat’s cagemates predicts conditioned fear expression and FGF2 in adulthood. We conditioned infant rats to associate a white noise with shock, and tested their memory of the association 1 week later. They were then weaned and randomly assigned to cage/cagemates. In adulthood, rats received weak context conditioning (i.e., a single shock) and were tested for fear of the context the following day. Rats were then euthanized and their brains extracted to measure levels of hippocampal FGF2 protein. Across 2 experiments, an individual rat’s fear memory during infancy positively predicted their own fear expression in adulthood, but the mean memory retention of their cagemates did not predict fear expression. In contrast, the mean memory retention of a rat’s cagemates during infancy negatively predicted hippocampal FGF2 protein in adulthood, but an individual rat’s memory retention did not predict their own levels of FGF2. These data support the idea that variations in the fearfulness of a rat’s cagemates predict individual differences on physiological measures in adulthood.

The postnatal testosterone rebound in first-time fathers and the quality and quantity of paternal care.

In human males, testosterone (T) decreases in the period following the birth of offspring. This decline has been widely interpreted as a facultative neuroendocrine response that facilitates parenting effort. Conversely, research on if (or when) this decline in T would be followed by an eventual recovery and subsequent shift away from parenting effort is lacking. In a U.S. community sample of 225 males transitioning to first-time fatherhood, we measured T at three occasions: third trimester, infant 3months postnatal, and infant 9-10months postnatal. Using a piecewise latent growth curve model (GCM), we detected a T rebound from when infants were 3months old to when infants were 9-10months old. The slope of this rebound was able to predict paternal care using two distinct measures: (a) an experience sampling method (ESM) that gathered data on paternal time allocation over the course of the study period and (b) independent coders rating fathers for the quality of paternal care during a structured task designed to elicit an infant fear response. As predicted, the more accelerated one's T rebound (slope), the less time fathers invested in their infants across the study period. However, we found a positive relationship between T rebound and quality of paternal care during a challenging activity. Discussion will focus on nuanced reasons that contribute to these findings as well as speculate on the ultimate function of a human paternal T rebound.

Effect of Maternal Distress on Perceptions of Infant Behavior May Differ in Chinese-American and European-American Mothers and Infants.

This study examined the associations between maternal distress (symptoms of depression and anxiety) and observer and maternal ratings of infant temperament in Chinese-American (CA) and European-American (EA) 4-month-old infants (N = 114 dyads). Maternal distress was obtained through self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Mothers reported infant temperament (distress at limitations, soothability, and fear) through the short form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. To obtain observer-rated infant reactivity, infants were administered a battery of visual and auditory stimuli in the laboratory, in which infant behaviors (fret/cry, limb activity, and arching of the back) were coded. Maternal distress accounted more for the maternal perception of her infant among EA mothers than among CA mothers, but the relation was only observed for soothability. Higher maternal distress was associated with maternal report of lower soothability for EA mothers. Observer-rated infant reactivity, but not maternal distress, was positively associated with EA and CA maternal report of distress at limitations. Observer-rated infant negativity was associated with somewhat higher ratings of infant fear for EA mothers, although this association for EA mothers was not significantly different from CA mothers. Potential biases in maternal report of infant behavior due to effects from maternal distress may not be generalizable across cultures but may vary because of cultural norms for emotional experience and expectations for infant behavior. EA mothers' ratings of infant distress and soothability, but not fear, may be influenced by maternal distress.

Maternal Neural Reactivity During Pregnancy Predicts Infant Temperament.

Maternal biological systems impact infant temperament as early as the prenatal period, though the mechanisms of this association are unknown. Using a prospective, longitudinal design, we found that maternal (N = 89) amplitudes of the late positive potential (LPP) in response to negative stimuli during the second, but not the third, trimester of pregnancy predicted observed and physiological indices of temperamental reactivity in infants at age 4 months. Maternal LPP was positively associated with observed infant fear and negatively associated with frontal EEG asymmetry and cortisol reactivity in infants at age 4 months. Results identify a putative mechanism, early in pregnancy, for the intergenerational transmission of emotional reactivity from mother to infant.

Fear in infancy: Lessons from snakes, spiders, heights, and strangers.

This review challenges the traditional interpretation of infants' and young children's responses to three types of potentially "fear-inducing" stimuli-snakes and spiders, heights, and strangers. The traditional account is that these stimuli are the objects of infants' earliest developing fears. We present evidence against the traditional account, and provide an alternative explanation of infants' behaviors toward each stimulus. Specifically, we propose that behaviors typically interpreted as "fearful" really reflect an array of stimulus-specific responses that are highly dependent on context, learning, and the perceptual features of the stimuli. We speculate about why researchers so commonly misinterpret these behaviors, and conclude with future directions for studying the development of fear in infants and young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Trajectories of maternal pre- and postnatal anxiety and depressive symptoms and infant fear: Moderation by infant sex

BackgroundPrior work has examined the links between pre- and postnatal maternal distress and infant negative affectivity; however, there is little understanding about how the continuity of infant exposure to pre- and postnatal maternal distress relates to infant development. This study investigated the continuity of maternal pre- and postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms and their relations with infant fear among 391 mother-infant dyads. An additional aim was to consider infant sex as a moderating factor. MethodsMaternal anxiety and depressive symptoms were measured during gestational weeks 14, 24 and 34 and 3 and 6 months postpartum. Subsequently, infant fear was measured using mother reports (IBQ-R) at 6 months and in a laboratory setting (Lab-TAB Masks episode) at 8 months. Using growth mixture modeling, a three-class model describing the course of maternal symptoms across pregnancy and the early postnatal period was identified, consisting of mothers with “Consistently Low Distress”, “Prenatal-Only Distress”, and “Consistently High Distress”. ResultsInfant girls exposed to prenatal-only maternal distress were higher in observed fear than infant boys exposed to prenatal-only distress. Infant girls exposed to consistently high distress also showed lower observed fear than their counterparts exposed to prenatal-only maternal distress. LimitationsThe main limitation of the study is the relatively small group size within the Consistently High subgroup. ConclusionsThe findings suggest that girls might be particularly sensitive to maternal distress, and that prenatal-only and continuous distress exposure are differentially related to female infant fear.

Associations between maternal physiology and maternal sensitivity vary depending on infant distress and emotion context.

Individual differences in maternal sensitivity to infant distress were examined by testing whether mothers' physiological responses interacted to predict sensitivity differently in a fear task relative to an anger task, and based on the level of distress displayed by the infant. Mothers' (N = 208) physiological arousal (skin conductance level [SCL] arousal) and physiological regulation (respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA] withdrawal/augmentation) were measured during a baseline task and while interacting with their 1-year-old infants during tasks that elicited infant fear and infant anger. Infant negative affect and maternal sensitivity were assessed during these interactions, and mothers later reported on their perceptions of infant distress during the tasks. Results indicated that the mother SCL arousal × RSA change interaction predicted sensitivity only with infants who displayed higher distress, and in a different pattern across tasks. In the fear task, for mothers of infants displaying higher distress, SCL arousal related to greater sensitivity only for mothers who displayed RSA withdrawal. In the anger task, for mothers of infants displaying higher distress, SCL arousal related to greater sensitivity only for mothers who displayed RSA augmentation. Further, although infants displayed similar levels of distress in each task, maternal SCL arousal, sensitivity, and perceptions of distress differed across tasks. These results suggest that contextual cues and infant distress cues both contribute to associations between mothers' physiological responses and maternal sensitivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Neurobiology of maternal regulation of infant fear: the role of mesolimbic dopamine and its disruption by maltreatment.

Child development research highlights caregiver regulation of infant physiology and behavior as a key feature of early life attachment, although mechanisms for maternal control of infant neural circuits remain elusive. Here we explored the neurobiology of maternal regulation of infant fear using neural network and molecular levels of analysis in a rodent model. Previous research has shown maternal suppression of amygdala-dependent fear learning during a sensitive period. Here we characterize changes in neural networks engaged during maternal regulation and the transition to infant self-regulation. Metabolic mapping of 2-deoxyglucose uptake during odor-shock conditioning in postnatal day (PN)14 rat pups showed that maternal presence blocked fear learning, disengaged mesolimbic circuitry, basolateral amygdala (BLA), and plasticity-related AMPA receptor subunit trafficking. At PN18, when maternal presence only socially buffers threat learning (similar to social modulation in adults), maternal presence failed to disengage the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, and failed to disengage both the BLA and plasticity-related AMPA receptor subunit trafficking. Further, maternal presence failed to block threat learning at PN14 pups following abuse, and mesolimbic dopamine engagement and AMPA were not significantly altered by maternal presence-analogous to compromised maternal regulation of children in abusive relationships. Our results highlight three key features of maternal regulation: (1) maternal presence blocks fear learning and amygdala plasticity through age-dependent suppression of amygdala AMPA receptor subunit trafficking, (2) maternal presence suppresses engagement of brain regions within the mesolimbic dopamine circuit, and (3) early-life abuse compromises network and molecular biomarkers of maternal regulation, suggesting reduced social scaffolding of the brain.