Infant-father Attachment Security Research Articles

Triadic family interactions at 2 years: The role of prenatal marital quality and infants’ attachment configuration with mother and father

ABSTRACT This longitudinal study uncovered prenatal marital antecedents of infants’ attachment configurations with both mother and father at 12-15 months (n = 125). We also examined the contribution of both marital quality and infants’ attachment configurations (secure with both parents, insecure with both parents, secure with mother-insecure with father, and insecure with mother-secure with father) to the quality of triadic (mother-father-toddler) interactions observed two years post-birth. Couples who displayed less negative affectivity and were more emotionally attuned were more likely to have infants securely attached with father and insecurely attached with mother (vs. insecure with both parents) and they engaged in more adaptive family interactions at two years. Also, a secure infant-father attachment relationship forecast more balanced triadic family interactions, regardless of whether the infant-mother attachment was secure or insecure. In contrast, a secure infant-mother attachment relationship was related to less controlling behavior during triadic interactions, regardless of infant-father attachment security.

Developmental trajectories of infant nighttime awakenings are associated with infant-mother and infant-father attachment security

This longitudinal study examined developmental trajectories of infant sleep problems from 3 to 24 months old and investigated associations with infant-parent attachment security and dependency. In a sample of 107 Israeli families, number and duration of infant nighttime awakenings were measured at 3, 6, 9, and 24 months old, using mothers’ and fathers’ reports on the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire (BISQ). Infant–parent attachment security and infant-parent dependency was assessed at 24 months old, using the observer Attachment Q-Sort procedure (AQS) with both parents. Latent growth curve models showed a non-linear decline in number and duration of infant nighttime awakenings over time. A higher number and longer duration of infant nighttime awakenings at 3 months were associated with higher infant-father attachment security at 24 months. In contrast, longer infant nighttime awakenings at 3 months were predictive of lower infant-mother attachment security at 24 months. A steeper decrease in duration of infant nighttime awakenings was associated with higher infant-father attachment security and lower infant-mother attachment security. As a potential mechanism, paternal involvement in nighttime caregiving was explored in relation to infant-father attachment security. Results of our post-hoc analyses revealed no significant associations between paternal involvement in nighttime caregiving and infant-father attachment security. Our results highlight the need to examine potential mechanisms explaining the divergent associations of infant sleep problems with infant-mother and infant-father attachment security in future research.

Predicting infant–father attachment: the role of pre- and postnatal triadic family alliance and paternal testosterone levels

ABSTRACT This longitudinal study examined whether prenatal family alliance and prenatal paternal testosterone levels predicted infant–mother and infant–father attachment security and whether this association was mediated by postnatal family alliance and postnatal paternal testosterone levels. In 105 couples expecting their first child, family alliance was assessed in the third trimester of pregnancy with the prenatal version of the Lausanne Trilogue Play (LTP). Family alliance was measured again 6 months postnatally, using the LTP. Fathers provided testosterone samples prenatally and at 6 months postnatally. Infant–parent attachment was assessed with the Attachment Q-Sort (AQS) at 24 months. Results indicated an increase in paternal testosterone levels from the pre- to the postnatal period. A more positive prenatal family alliance predicted higher infant–father attachment security at 24 months, but not infant–mother attachment security. The association between prenatal family alliance and attachment security was not mediated by postnatal family alliance or postnatal paternal testosterone levels. This study highlights the significance of prenatal family relations, and the need to consider in research and practice the divergent effects of prenatal family alliance patterns on the emerging infant–mother and infant–father attachment relationships. The underlying hormonal mechanisms during the transition to fatherhood are important targets for future research.

*The efficacy of the attachment-based SAFE® prevention program: a randomized control trial including mothers and fathers

ABSTRACTSAFE® is a primary prevention program to promote secure infant-parent attachment. SAFE explicitly addresses mothers and fathers. In this current first study, efficacy was assessed in a low-risk German sample using a randomized control trial with an active control intervention. A high rate of fathers’ participation was achieved: in SAFE 84.6% and in the control group intervention 73.9% of the fathers participated. Infant-parent attachment was assessed at the end of the year-long programs. There was a significant difference between groups in terms of secure infant-father attachment, but not of infant-mother attachment. In SAFE, 84.6% of the infants were securely attached to their father (n = 39), in comparison to 65.8% in the control group (n = 38). The proportion of secure infant-mother attachment was 66.7% in the SAFE group (n = 54) and 64.0% in the control group (n = 50). The program was successful in promoting infant-father attachment security.

Is one secure attachment enough? Infant cortisol reactivity and the security of infant-mother and infant-father attachments at the end of the first year

ABSTRACTAttachment security is theorized to shape stress reactivity, but extant work has failed to find consistent links between attachment security to mothers and infant cortisol reactivity. We examined family configurations of infant-mother and infant-father attachment security in relation to infant cortisol reactivity. One-year old infants (N = 180) participated in the Strange Situation with mothers and fathers in two counterbalanced lab visits, one month apart (12 and 13 months). Infants with secure attachments only to their fathers and not their mothers had higher cortisol levels than infants with a secure attachment to mother and also exhibited a blunted cortisol response (high at baseline and then a decrease after stress). Results suggest that a secure attachment to father may not be enough to reduce infant stress reactivity when the infant-mother attachment is insecure, and future research is needed to uncover the family dynamics that underlie different family configurations of attachment security.

Paternal history of depression or anxiety disorder and infant–father attachment

AbstractPaternal depression and anxiety are important risk factors for a problematic parent–child relationship and subsequent child development. We explored the association between paternal history of depression and anxiety disorder and infant–father attachment security, taking into account the possible mediating roles of sensitivity and perceived family stress. In a sample of 94 infant–father dyads, a structured diagnostic interview and a questionnaire on family stress were administered during pregnancy. Paternal sensitivity was observed using the Ainsworth coding scales, and infant–father attachment was observed in the strange situation procedure during a lab visit at 14 months. Linear regression models were used to examine the association of father's lifetime depression or anxiety with the continuous scales for infant–father attachment security and disorganization. Father's history of depression or anxiety disorder was not significantly related to infant–father attachment security in the total sample. Interestingly, daughters of fathers with a history of depression or anxiety had higher scores on attachment security than daughters of fathers without this diagnosis. Perceived family stress and paternal sensitivity were not significant mediators. We discuss these unexpected findings, suggesting alternative mechanisms for how paternal vulnerability to depression or anxiety may be associated with the infant–father attachment relationship.Highlights We examine the association between paternal history of depression and anxiety disorder and infant‐father attachment security. In 94 infant‐father dyads, a structured diagnostic interview was administered and infant‐father attachment was observed in the Strange Situation Procedure. Daughters of fathers with a psychiatric history had higher scores on attachment security. Mechanisms of paternal vulnerability are discussed.

Early Temperament and Attachment Security with Mothers and Fathers as Predictors of Toddler Compliance and Noncompliance

This longitudinal study (n = 106) examined associations between temperament, attachment, and styles of compliance and noncompliance. Infant negative temperamental reactivity was reported by mothers at 3, 5 and 7 months. Infant attachment was assessed (Strange Situation) at 12 (mothers) and 14 months (fathers). Toddlers' styles of compliance/noncompliance were measured using two laboratory contexts (clean‐up/delay) at 20 months. Results indicated that temperament and attachment predicted toddler behaviour. Toddlers who were secure with mothers and low in temperamental negative reactivity showed more committed compliance than those who were insecure and low in negative reactivity or secure and high in negative reactivity. In addition, interactions revealed that relations between infant–mother attachment and defiance depended on infant–father attachment security, temperament and context. Findings highlight the differential and complex roles of temperament and attachment as potential precursors of later social competence. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The association between paternal sensitivity and infant–father attachment security: A meta-analysis of three decades of research.

For almost three decades, the association between paternal sensitivity and infant-father attachment security has been studied. The first wave of studies on the correlates of infant-father attachment showed a weak association between paternal sensitivity and infant-father attachment security (r = .13, p < .001, k = 8, N = 546). In the current paper, a meta-analysis of the association between paternal sensitivity and infant-father attachment based on all studies currently available is presented, and the change over time of the association between paternal sensitivity and infant-father attachment is investigated. Studies using an observational measure of paternal interactive behavior with the infant, and the Strange Situation Procedure to observe the attachment relationship were included. Paternal sensitivity is differentiated from paternal sensitivity combined with stimulation in the interaction with the infant. Higher levels of paternal sensitivity were associated with more infant-father attachment security (r = .12, p < .001, k = 16, N = 1,355). Fathers' sensitive play combined with stimulation was not more strongly associated with attachment security than sensitive interactions without stimulation of play. Despite possible changes in paternal role patterns, we did not find stronger associations between paternal sensitivity and infant attachment in more recent years.

Observed and reported supportive coparenting as predictors of infant–mother and infant–father attachment security

This study examined associations between supportive coparenting and infant–mother and infant–father attachment security. Observed and parent‐reported coparenting, and observed maternal and paternal sensitivity were assessed in a sample of 68 families with 3.5‐month‐old infants. Infant–mother and infant–father attachment security were assessed in the Strange Situation Procedure at 12 and 13 months of age, respectively. Observed and reported supportive coparenting were associated with greater attachment security in the infant–father, but not the infant–mother, attachment relationship. The link between observed coparenting and infant–father attachment remained after accounting for paternal sensitivity. Furthermore, child gender moderated some associations between coparenting and infant–parent attachment security. Amongst families with boys, observed and reported supportive coparenting were related to greater infant–mother and infant–father attachment security, respectively. Coparenting was unrelated to infant–mother or infant–father attachment security amongst families with girls. Results highlight a possible link between the coparental and father–child relationships and the need to consider both parent and child gender when examining associations between family functioning and attachment.

Parental beliefs, infant temperament, and marital quality: Associations with infant–mother and infant–father attachment.

The present research examined parental beliefs about the importance of the paternal caregiving role, mothers' and fathers' reports of infant temperament, and observed marital quality as predictors of infant-mother and infant-father attachment security, over and above the effects of parental sensitivity. Infants' attachment security to mothers and fathers were observed in the Strange Situation at 12 and 13 months, respectively (N = 62 two-parent families). Hierarchical regression models revealed that mothers who viewed the paternal caregiving role as important were less likely to have securely attached infants, but only when infant fussiness was high. In addition, fathers who viewed the paternal caregiving role as important were more likely to have securely attached infants, but only when infants' fussiness or marital quality was high.

Attachment and bookreading patterns: A study of mothers, fathers, and their toddlers

This study, involving 138 families rearing firstborn sons, extends work on bookreading by relating quality of parent-child interactive exchange during bookreading to contemporaneous and antecedent assessments of infant-parent attachment security. One parent and the child were observed when children were 12, 13, 18, and 20 months. At the first and third visit, infant-mother attachment security was assessed, with infant-father attachment security being assessed at the second and fourth visit. Following the assessment of attachment security at 18 and 20 months, parent and child were videotaped in a bookreading session. At 18 and 20 months, children responded to the pictures in a book by pointing and labelling, and their parents tried to initiate these reactions by following predictable routines. In contrast to other mothers, insecure-avoidant mothers were more inclined to read the verbal text and less inclined to initiate interactions around the pictures. Insecure-avoidant children were less inclined to respond to the book and were more distracted. In insecure-resistant dyads, overcontrolling and overstimulating behavior by the mother appeared to covary with ambivalence on the part of the children. The results do not support a similar pattern for the fatherchild dyads. Implications for family literacy programs are discussed.

Parent, infant, and social-contextual antecedents of father-son attachment security.

To examine antecedents of infant-father attachment security, 126 fathers and their sons were seen in the Strange Situation. Questionnaire measurements obtained 3 months earlier of constructs implicated by Belsky's (1984) model of the determinants of parenting were examined as correlates of attachment classifications (i.e., father personality, infant temperament, marital quality, social support, work-family relations). Fathers of secure infants were more extraverted and agreeable than fathers of insecure infants, tended to have more positive marriages, and experienced more positive emotional spillover between work and family. Infants classified as insecure-avoidant received more positive temperament ratings than insecure-resistant sons. Overall, the more infant, parent, and social-contextual assets the family had, the greater the probability ofa secure attachment.

Infant, Father, and Marital Antecedents of Infant Father Attachment Security in Dual-Earner and Single-Earner Families

In contrast to the research examining infant-mother attachment, much less is known about the development of infant-father attachment relationships. Several recent findings suggest that infants in dual-earner families may develop insecure attachments not only to their mothers, but to their fathers as well. The purpose of the present study was to examine characteristics of the father, the infant, and the marital relationship as antecedents of secure/ insecure infant-father attachments in dual-earner and single-earner families as recent reports suggest that different family processes may exist within these two family ecologies. Longitudinal data from 113 fathers and their firstborn infants were collected before the birth of the child, and when infants were 3 and 9 months old, while Strange Situation assessments were conducted when infants were 13 months of age. Results indicated that change in perceived infant temperament, men's recollected child-rearing histories, and the division of labour distinguished families in which secure or insecure infant-father attachments developed. In only one instance, that of marital conflict, does it appear that different antecedent processes underlie the development of infant-father attachment security across the two family contexts. Results suggest that conclusions based upon research on the antecedents of infant-mother attachment security cannot be presumed to apply to the study of infant-father attachment.