Individuals With Disabilities Act Research Articles

Discovering ME: An innovative planning tool for students with significant disabilities

BACKGROUND: The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) requires transition plans for students with disabilities to be based on high-quality, age-appropriate transition assessments. However, educators struggle to garner reliable assessment results for students with significant disabilities, because so few assessments are designed or validated for students with these barriers. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this practice brief is to share details on the process, called Discovering ME, which provides an effective transition assessment and planning tool that is critical to increasing students’ employment outcomes, especially for those who face the most significant barriers to employment. METHODS: Sixty-one students across rural, urban, and suburban school districts participated in Discovering ME. Data were collected across five years, including demographic information and examples of students’ top career cluster areas for future employment. In addition, a statewide survey was conducted with educators participating in Discovering ME on the effectiveness of this early career planning process. RESULTS: The Discovering ME process provides career-related opportunities for students with significant barriers in the home, school, and community in a variety of career clusters based on their expressed interests. Educators report that the focus of this process on students and their interests helped to create positive experiences for them by creating opportunities for success. CONCLUSION: The Discovering ME process provides students with disabilities with authentic, coordinated career awareness and development activities and the building of self-determination, work readiness, and community integration skills.

Making Meaningful Connections: Facilitating Schoolwide Family Engagement With Culturally Diverse Families

The importance of strong family partnerships has long been considered essential to supporting the success of student with exceptionalities. Research indicates that building school-wide relationships with culturally and linguistically diverse families continues to prove challenges for administrators and other school personnel (Fowler, Coleman, Bogdan, 2019). The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) both emphasize the critical importance of family engagement. Due to the national professional standards which undergird special education teacher preparation programs, special educators are uniquely positioned to enhance school-wide family engagement strategies. The focus of this practitioner-based manuscript is to provide building-level school administrators with planning tools to implement culturally responsive family-engagement for families of children with disabilities.

Impact of converging sociocultural and substance-related trends on US autism rates: combined geospatiotemporal and causal inferential analysis

Whilst cannabis is known to be toxic to brain development, it is unknown if it is driving rising US autism rates (ASMR). A longitudinal epidemiological study was conducted using national autism census data from the US Department of Education Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) 1991–2011 and nationally representative drug exposure (cigarettes, alcohol, analgesic, and cocaine abuse, and cannabis use monthly, daily, and in pregnancy) datasets from National Survey of Drug Use and Health and US Census (income and ethnicity) and CDC Wonder population and birth data. Analysis was conducted in R. 266,950 were autistic of a population of 40,119,464 8-year-olds in 1994–2011. At national level after adjustment, daily cannabis use was significantly related to ASMR (β estimate = 4.37 (95%C.I. 4.06, 4.68), P < 2.2 × 10–16) as was first pregnancy trimester cannabis exposure (β estimate = 0.12 (0.08, 0.16), P = 1.7 × 10–12). At state level following adjustment for cannabis, cannabigerol (from β estimate = – 13.77 (– 19.41, 8.13), P = 1.8 × 10–6) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (from β estimate = 1.96 (0.88–3.04), P = 4 × 10–4) were significant. Geospatial state-level modelling showed exponential relationship between ASMR and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabigerol exposure. Exponential coefficients for the relationship between modelled ASMR and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabigerol exposure were 7.053 (6.39–7.71) and 185.334 (167.88–202.79; both P < 2.0 × 10–7). E-values are an instrument related to the evidence for causality in observational studies. High E-values were noted. Dichotomized legal status was linked with elevated ASMR. Data show cannabis use is associated with ASMR, is powerful enough to affect overall trends, and persists after controlling for other major covariates. Cannabinoids are exponentially associated with ASMR. The cannabis–autism relationship satisfies criteria of causal inference.

Graduate and Professional Education for Students with Disabilities: Examining Access to STEM, Legal, and Health Fields in the United States

ABSTRACT People with disabilities have been historically marginalised and consistently underrepresented at all levels of education. In the U.S., the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) in the 1970s changed the landscape for primary and secondary education, increasing access for many students. In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed, and since that time students with disabilities have entered postsecondary institutions at greater rates. While in 2001, only about 5% of college students identified as having a disability, more recent estimates put the proportion of undergraduate students with disabilities at approximately 11%. Despite this growth, only 5% of post-baccalaureate students report having a disability relative to undergraduate students. This raises the question of how accessible graduate and professional education is for students with disabilities.

Effect of Cannabis Legalization on US Autism Incidence and Medium Term Projections

Objective: In that cannabis use has been linked with the development of autism spectrum disorder like conditions in gestationally exposed children, we set out to explore the extent to which rising cannabis use might contribute to the rising autism epidemic. Methods: Datasets from US Department of Education Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), National Survey of Drug Use and Health, and CDC’s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network were investigated. Data on legal status was derived from SAMHSA. Results: IDEA had N=1,023 and ADDM N=87. Modelling of IDEA consistently showed that models quadratic-intime out-performed linear-only models (ANOVA p<2.0x10-16). In both datasets liberalization of cannabis legislation was associated with increased ASD (p<10-9 and p<0.05 respectively). Slopes of: ASD vs. time, Cannabis vs. time and ASD vs. cannabis curves were shown to be related on graphical analysis by geofacet plots and tanglegrams (entanglement=0.3326). CDC’s ADDM network quoted US autism incidence 168/10,000 in 2014. IDEA projections indicated rates 108.57, 131.67 and 166.49 in cannabis-illegal, -medical and -decriminalized states rising exponentially to 282.37, 396.91 and 455.54 by 2030. Conclusion: ASD is the commonest form of cannabis-associated clinical teratology. Using two independent datasets and two categorization methods we confirmed that medical, decriminalized and legal cannabis regimes are associated with higher rates of ASD than illegal ones. Findings are consistent with molecular, cellular and epigenetic mechanisms. Formerly quadratic regression curves become exponential when projected forwards to 2030; predict a lower quantum than the 2014 ADDM CDC figure; and indicate a 60% excess of cases in legal states by 2030.

Facilitating Support for Students with Asperger's Syndrome

The number of students with Asperger's Syndrome enrolled at tertiary institutions in the United States continues to increase. This can be attributed to: (a) the passage of legislations such as the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); (b) revisions to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM); and (c) early intervention and treatment. Although the increase may be an indicator that a climate of inclusion for individuals with Asperger's Syndrome has been created, many institutions are not adequately prepared to accommodate these students. In order to serve students with Aspergers's Syndrome effectively, collaboration between several university entities is necessary. The authors highlight the pivotal role that college counselors can play in providing direct support to students with Asperger's Syndrome and in facilitating and coordinating inputs from other sectors of the college environment such as disability services, faculty members, and residence-life staff.

The Evolution of LD Policy and Future Challenges

HISTORICAL CONTEXT It is 42 years since Sam Kirk proposed the use of the term learning disabilities (LD) and I began my career in education. As a new seventh-grade history and English teacher, I was frustrated by my inability to teach, effectively, students who were unable to adequately read the textbooks and achieve academically at a level consistent with their intellectual abilities. Thus, I embarked on a career in special education. In 1967, I came to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to work on national and state policy to advance the education of students with exceptionalities. The following year CEC and the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, working with Senator Ralph Yarborough of Texas, developed and had introduced, along with Congressman Carl Perkins of Kentucky, the Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act. The bill provided for research, professional development, and model programs in leaning disabilities. The following year the bill was enacted as Title VII of the Education of the Handicapped Act (PL 91-230). The CEC State-Federal Information Clearinghouse for Exceptional Children, which I directed, reported in 1970 that 18 states had policies directed at the needs of students with LD (CEC-SFICEC, 1970). The terms used to describe such students and the definitions of the terms varied widely. We found that children who possessed reading or other major learning problems were classified with 38 different terms (Weintraub, Abeson & Braddock, 1971). At the same time, the National Center for Educational Statistics (1970) found that while schools reported having one or more students with LD, 34% of schools provided no special education services to these students. The following five years were focused, in the courts, state legislatures, and the U.S. Congress, on establishing policies that would ensure that students with disabilities, including those with LD, would have available to them a public education and the special education services they required to benefit from an education. A milestone in this effort was the historic right-to-education case, The Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (PARC). In determining whether there was a constitutional equal protection right to an education, the court had to decide that children with mental retardation, who had been excluded from public education, could benefit from an education. The state argued that since the children could not be expected to meet the standards expected of students in the schools, they could not benefit from an education. The court found that all mentally retarded persons are capable of benefiting from a program of education and training; that the greatest number of retarded persons, given such training, are capable of achieving self-sufficiency, and the remaining few, with such education and training, are capable of achieving some degree of self-care ... (334 F. Supp. 1257). Thus, the court embraced a view of equal educational opportunity that recognized equal access to differing resources for differing outcomes (Weintraub & Abeson, 1974). The right-to-education principle articulated in PARC was premised on the view that students were different in both how they learned and what they needed to learn, in contrast to the traditional view that the purpose of education is to provide students access to the same outcomes. The right-to-education movement culminated with the passage of Public Law 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), which guaranteed students with disabilities a free appropriate public education (FAPE). Following the principles established in PARC, the law was procedural, rather than substantive, allowing a team of people to determine what was appropriate for a student. It was hoped that the education system would embrace the notion of celebrating outstanding achievement and that the student who, using of his ability, became a janitor would be as valued as the student who went to Harvard. …

Editorial: Underfunded Mandates or Misplaced Priorities

The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) is on a 5-year schedule, meaning that IDEA 1997 should have been modified and reauthorized in 2002. In a flurry of activity before adjourning for a winter break, the Senate and House of Representatives reconciled their large differences and passed a new IDEA in November of 2004. IDEA 1997 had been held hostage to the Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002, which essentially ignored disabled children and it was hoped that a reauthorization would address some of the major problems. Senator Kennedy of Massachusetts referred to a long arduous process in addressing the needs of disabled children. Consistent with previous congressional action the law is underfunded, a situation that has existed for 30 years beginning with the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, which set a goal that federal funding would provide 40% of the national average per pupil expenditure. Current appropriations provide less than 20% and proposals to achieve the 40% goal by 2010 were defeated. Clearly states will not get the funds to meet the requirements established by Congress; the same situation exists for NCLB. IDEA also is designed to reduce paperwork and to reduce the number of children classified as minority who may be inappropriately identified as disabled. A regressive provision relates to due process. If parents do not agree with an Individualized Education Plan they must file a clear, specific complaint before a meeting. This would seem to me to provide an obstacle for poor parents or parents not proficient in English. A further provision holds that if a lawsuit is filed and deemed frivolous, attorneys, and by extension, parents, would be responsible for all costs to the school district. Such a prospect might intimidate not only poor parents but any parents who were not independently wealthy Although both IDEA and NCLB are underfunded, that may not be the real issue. The question may be rephrased to ask if our money and our efforts are being properly focused. On the average the United States spends more money both in general and special education than other countries, yet international comparisons suggest that our children do relatively well in reading and less well in mathematics. In fact, a recent study of the ability to solve real-life math problems by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) of 15-year-old students in 29 countries reported that American children were below the average. Finnish children were first. Real-life math was contrasted to scholastic achievement or theoretical skills such as algebra or calculus-the kinds of material tested in most standardized tests. International comparisons, per se. are limited, but the fact is that we have no way of really assessing the impact of NCLB, or IDEA, at least no systematic program has been initiated. My claim may seem startling, given the federal emphasis on accountability and rigor. In fact, despite the title, No Child Left Behind, there is no nationwide program to test every child across state lines. Each state has the responsibility to develop its own tests and there is no indication that all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and so forth, will ever agree to use the same test. Even though each state is required to report results by several different categories, including disabilities, the results are state-specific. …

Status of Community-Based Transition Programs: A National Database

The goal of transition services is to improve the postschool outcomes for students with disabilities, but more than 10 years after the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) mandated transition services, students with disabilities are still exiting high school with significantly different postschool outcomes than their peers. Community-based instruction, work experience, family involvement, interagency collaboration, and postsecondary training have been highlighted as methods to improve student outcomes. This article identifies 101 community-based transition programs that incorporate community-based instruction, work experience, and postsecondary education especially designed for students aged 18-21 years old. Findings regarding disability populations, ages served, community locations, funding sources, interagency collaboration, and staffing of these programs are discussed.

Increasing the Number of Ethnically Diverse Faculty in Special Education Programs: Issues and Initiatives

Many universities are grappling with the issue of diversifying the faculty lines in higher education. While this appears to be a global issue across disciplines, those of us who are in special education may find it to be of greater concern because special education legislation, the Individuals with disabilities Act (IDEA) strongly supports diversity. Congress has stated that the government must be responsive to the growing needs of an increasingly more diverse society, and recommended that recruitment efforts focus on bringing larger numbers of minorities into the profession. Section 610 of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates an increase in the number of professionals representing diverse cultures and backgrounds (IDEA, 101–476, 1990). This paper provides justification for the need to actively participate in efforts to increase the number of ethnically diverse faculty in colleges and universities and in programs in special education. A global perspective is shared. Challenges and concerns are delineated, along with initiatives that may assist colleges and universities when designing recruitment programs.

Equality and Inclusion: Creating a Communitarian Environment

As knowledge of disability has changed over time, so too has the concept of equality. At the highest level of equality, interdependence is emphasized over individual independence in an effort to create a community in which all members have opportunity for contribution and active participation, as envisioned by the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA). Here, I examine the various level of equality as they relate to the philosophy and intent of IDEA, I then investigate implications for the art class as it provides for a unique, participatory environment for learners experiencing disabilities, and I offer strategies for creating an environment that allows all learners to actively contribute in their art making and learning.

Concise encyclopedia of special education: a reference for the education of the handicapped and other exceptional children and adults

The Concise Encyclopedia of Special Education, Second Edition is a comprehensive resource for those working in the fields of special education research and practice. Featuring reviews of assessment instruments and teaching approaches, legal issues, overviews of specific learning disabilities, dozens of biographies, and more, this complete desk reference is an indispensable guide for professionals, academics, and students alike. Named an American Library Association Top 25 Reference of the Year in its First Edition, The Concise Encyclopedia serves as an important reference for the education of handicapped and other exceptional children. Written and edited by highly regarded and respected experts in the fields of special education and psychology, this authoritative resource guide provides a reference base for educators as well as professionals in the areas of psychology, neuropsychology, medicine, health care, social work and law. Additionally, this acclaimed reference work is essential for administrators, psychologists, diagnosticians, and school counselors, as well as parents of the handicapped themselves. Whata s new in this edition aeo Comprehensive coverage of new legislation such as Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act aeo Cultural competence in Special Education, including new material on culturally/linguistically diverse students aeo Many new entries including notable biographies, new service delivery systems, special education laws, new assessment instruments, cross--cultural issues, neuropsychology, and use of the Internet in research and service delivery. Some of the topics covered aeo Academic assessment aeo Achievement tests aeo Addictions aeo Bilingual education aeo Child and adolescent behavior management aeo Counseling with individuals and families with disabilities aeo Early childhood education aeo Gifted education aeo Intelligence tests aeo Mathematics disabilities aeo Psychoeducational methods aeo Rehabilitation aeo Socioeconomic status aeo Special education parent and student rights aeo Traumatic brain injury

Confounded Policies: Implementing Site-Based Management and Special Education Policy Reforms

Confounded policy and adhocracy provided useful frameworks for analyzing this study of one district implementing federal Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) while simultaneously giving sites flexibility. Professionals creatively met student needs appropriate for their sites, found resources, and negotiated new role and task assignments. But site decision making provided an unsatisfactory structure for managing IDEA, creating ambiguities. The need for district office leadership, centralized personnel and policy management, and equitable practice monitoring was highlighted in day-to-day confusion over decision-making responsibility. What state tests should special education students take? Who deals with African American boys being shuffled into special education? Which federal policy assumes priority when several policies conflict? Similar questions were in the everyday context and may reflect confounded policy situations beyond this district and particular policies explored in this case. Finally, this analysis draws implications for theoretical exploration of adhocracy, for policy implementation, and for cautions about site-based management.

Perspective: Some Future Trends and Needs of Rural Schools and Communities

We do not need to read die tea leaves, call upon a seer, or turn to tarot cards to predict the future of rural schools and small communities based on past and current evidence. From the Washington perspective, everything points to continued longevity, as long as the federal government does its part to assist in the success of rural schools and communities. Current Trends in Small, Rural Schools To begin, some facts about rural, small schools and school districts. While the number of school districts nationwide has slighdy declined in the last decade, the number of school buildings in use is on the rise. More non-traditional buildings are being used to house students (think charter schools) and new schools are being built (look at Clark County, Nevada). Yet in some parts of the nation, schools are being shut down because of lack of enrollment or because of forced consolidation. Rural school districts can be defined as those with fewer than 2,500 students. This is by no means scientific. However, most agree there is no good definition of what constitutes rural. (An aside: The U.S. Census Bureau is currently redefining the terms they use to describe population tracks for the current data set. The proposed terms do not identify or give a descriptor to, any community with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants.) The majority of districts, over 70%, in the nation enroll fewer than 2,500 students and account for 20% of the entire U.S. student body population. The statistic diat astonishes most folks is that one-third of all districts educate fewer than 600 students; that's not in a school, but a school district. Families who live in small, rural communities expect to receive the same (or at the minimum) a very similar education as their suburban counterparts. Supporters of equal educational opportunities for all children, expect the same for students in rural areas. While disparities exist among rural, suburban, and urban youth in almost every category that can be defined and studied, for example, achievement levels, involvement in afterschool activities, graduation rates from high school, rural students are able to out-perform or maintain equality with their peers in many if not most categories. Special Education Trends in Small, Rural Schools The one area in which where there is no dispute about need is the education of children with disabilities. Children with disabilities who live in rural, small communities are entitled to the same free and appropriate public education (FAPE), under the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), as any other child in the United States. There are few great phrases when it comes to education policy, but when a phrase becomes its own acronym - FAPE - there is no disputing this mandate for equity. Providing a free and appropriate public education to children with disabilities can be a severe financial burden to local small districts. For example, placement costs for a severely disabled child can exceed $100,000 annually. Federal funding has not yet met the level established by Congress when IDEA became law in 1975 or in subsequent reauthorizations. The result is an extreme financial burden for all districts. While only a small percentage of children need extensive services, the majority of educational services for children enrolled in special education does cost more than the average daily expenditure for other children in school districts. Small districts have small budgets and a need greater federal and state assistance. Without additional support, there is a constant struggle between regular and special education budgets for scarce resources. Although no one wishes to pit one student's needs against another, it happens in many small communities across the nation. Richard Rothstein, an economist, studied school district budgets between 1967 and 1996, a period in which education spending doubled. Many political leaders and education pundits asked, What happened to all that money? …

Introduction and Overview: The Education of African American Students: The Struggle Continues

Introduction and Overview In the past 50 years, tremendous strides have been made in educating individuals with exceptionalities. Much of this progress would not have been possible without the landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Separate but equal schools for Whites and Blacks had been the legal tradition of the South and the defacto practice of the North, prior to 1954. Brown has had a profound effect on where and how children in America are educated. This Supreme Court case declared the practice of segregated schools unconstitutional. Since the Brown decision, there have been subsequent court decisions and laws enacted to protect the rights of all children, including those with disabilities, to an appropriate and free public education (Individual with Disabilities Act, 1974/1997). The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) has enabled millions of American children with disabilities (previously excluded from schools) to receive a free public education. Today, millions of children with disabilities not only attend their community schools, but significant numbers are being educated in classrooms with their nondisabled peers. Families of children with disabilities also have been given more authority to actively participate in their children's education. Further, society has benefited from the inclusion of many skilled persons with disabilities, who are now a contributing part of the workforce (Heward, 2000). These remarkable advances should be celebrated, but they are only part of the story. Despite the important improvements in the educational opportunities for African American children and children with exceptionalities, all is not well, especially for poor urban African American children (Gardner & Talbert-Johnson, 2001). Segregated schools have been ruled illegal for almost 50 years, yet the school experiences for African Americans often differ dramatically from their European American peers. African American students are more likely to be placed in classes for persons that are mildly mentally retarded (MMR) or have serious emotional disturbances (SED), and less likely to be placed in gifted education classes than are European American students. These issues are compounded by a dwindling number of African American educators, who have traditionally played an important role in creating a positive learning environment for African American students. The diminishing number of African American educators may have a direct impact on the sensitivity of the school climate to African American children. The reality is that an unequal education process continues in America, despite legal and moral mandates. This series of articles highlights some of the issues that plague the education community, particularly in regard to African American children and their families. Not only are issues raised, but solutions to the various concerns are promoted. Cartledge, Sentelle, Loe, Lambert, and Reed describe an inner-city classroom for gifted students who were experiencing high levels of defiant and other inappropriate behaviors. Far too often, gifted African American children are overlooked and their educational needs are not met (Ford, 1996). The authors describe interventions that were successful in creating a positive academic environment, while decreasing inappropriate behaviors. …

Editorial

Editorial High Stakes Testing: Are the Stakes Too High? On balance, it appears to me that the impact of federal legislation and mandates on the education of deaf children has been positive. In addition to general education mandates for accountability and improved academic achievement , this includes legislation specific to our field such as the Education of the Deaf Act and special education legislation from the Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1977. In fact, as this editorial is being prepared, it appears likely that Congress will "fully fund" up to 40% of the excess cost of educating a disabled child, a commitment that was made in 1975 but never honored. Perhaps the greatest potential benefit is exemplified by the IDEA stipulation that all children should have access to the general, or regular, curriculum. I am convinced that more deaf children from residential schools to neighborhood programs are exposed to a regular curriculum than ever before and that access to more rigorous standards has improved academic achievement. Of course, no new development is either completely positive or negative. We have had problems, for example, with a too enthusiastic embrace in some quarters of the mainstreaming/inclusion/zero reject/integration model(s) of school placement, and too many deaf children have suffered in isolation as a result of a misapplication of the least restrictive environment principle. However, my concern in this editorial is not with issues of placement but with the possibly deleterious effects on education of deaf children of the interaction of three seemingly very positive trends: access to the general education curriculum, upgrading the general education curriculum, and accountability. Until recently, I thought the issues were relatively simple. On the surface they are, but we are facing a potential mine field. I would like to discuss a few of these issues briefly. Most readers are aware that the federal government for years has been advocating improving the academic achievement of American children in the content areas of science, mathematics, social science, and literacy and has encouraged establishment of more rigorous curricula. Comparisons have been made internationally and among the states, and the federal government has issued reports that may be considered "report cards" identifying the highest achieving states and states showing the most improvement in various categories. The emphasis is on improvement and accountability. At first glance, the situation seems to be relatively straightforward . However, as all American educators know, we do not have a system of federal education, and the relationships between the federal government and the states are quite complex. In essence, all states are committed to improving academic achievement and to accountability. "Accountability" can mean different things to different people. High stakes testing has become a catch phrase in recent years, especially as it relates to accountability. In many states, a child must pass a statewide test in order to move from one grade to another or to graduate from high school. Although many educators and test developers decry tying one measure to such important decisions, the practice is common. The unit of analysis may be a teacher (class), principal (school), school superintendent (school district), or state director of education (state). High stakes testing can impact each of these areas. The scores of his or her students may heavily influence teacher evaluation and pay. Principals may get bonuses contingent upon schoolwide improvement on the tests. Schools may lose their accreditation if their students do less well than expected . There are cases of school superintendents promising to raise school district scores or leave. There is competition across states. The stakes are very high for everyone concerned. The tests themselves can vary from state to state. Even when the same tests are used, the cutoff standards may be different . The use of different tests can lead to differences in classroom instruction. For example, the two adjacent states of Virginia and Maryland have different approaches to testing. The Virginia Standards of Learning (SOL) program tests of core areas of math, English, science, and social studies from elementary to high school are all multiple choice. The Maryland School Performance Assessment Program (MSPAP) Volume 145, No. 3, 2000 American Annals of the...

The Delivery of Special Education Services in Catholic Schools: One Hand Gives, the Other Hand Takes Away

This article examines legal issues surrounding the delivery of special education to children whose parents have voluntarily enrolled them in Catholic schools. In so doing, the article reviews the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), its regulations, and case law over the extent to which special education must be provided, the way in which it is delivered, and the quality of services that students in Catholic schools receive. The final portion of the article addresses questions about the delivery of special education in Catholic schools, including guidelines for implementing the new provisions in the IDEA in a manner that avoids running afoul of the Establishment Clause.

Recent Legal and Policy Developments in Special Education

The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) has been instrumental in ensuring that qualified students with disabilities receive a free appro priate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment. Determining the parameters of FAPE, however, has been a daunting task for school personnel and especially for school administrators. Principals find themselves increasingly challenged by a multitude of legal and policy issues regarding special education that are often dif ficult to understand yet necessary to address.

Counseling as a Related Service for Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: Issues and Recommendations

The related services component of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) has been one of the most difficult requirements in providing a free appropriate public education (FAPE) for students with disabilities, and it continues to be a persistent challenge with considerable legal precedent. A related service that is receiving increasing attention for students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) is counseling. Counseling services are defined as services provided by qualified social workers, psychologists, guidance counselors, or other qualified personnel. The purposes of this article are to examine the controversial provision of counseling as a related service and provide recommendations for improved practice. To accomplish these goals, we will first delineate the type of service options and personnel who may provide counseling under the related services clause of IDEA. Second, we will examine the legal mandates of IDEA involving counseling as a related service. Finally, we will provide recommendations to schools for providing counseling services to students with EBD being served under IDEA.

Chemistry and Special Education

Secondary and post-secondary science teachers are beginning to see increasing numbers of students with mild disabilities enrolled in their classes. These students can be classified as having one of a variety of mild disabilities that might impact the way they receive and process educational information. As a result of the passage in 1975 of PL 94-142, the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), disabled students now have the opportunity to receive special education in the public schools and to be placed in regular classrooms whenever possible. Very little information for science teachers is provided in teacher preparation courses or is available in the literature to offer concrete suggestions for teaching science to these students. This paper describes the political gains made in education for the disabled, identifies various types of mild disabilities, and suggests possible teaching interventions for the chemistry teacher who has a student with a mild disability.