Individuals Of Normal Intelligence Research Articles

An old brain with new tricks

Scientists continue to look to Einstein's brain in hopes of discovering the biology of intelligence. At the time of Einstein's death, statistical data on individuals of normal intelligence was limited (Herskovitz, 2000). However, our bank of statistical data on individuals in the “normal intelligence” range has since grown; a comparison of this new data to Einstein's brain may provide us with a greater context for understanding the relationship between the brain and intelligence. New Information about Albert Einstein's brain asks new questions about the famous mathematician's brain from a form and function point of view. In-depth studies of cortical surfaces, weight, and sulcal patterns serve as the foundation for this research, but Dr. Dean Falk at Florida State University has made a new discovery by closely examining Einstein's cortical sulci. Using existing neuroanatomy and functional neuroimaging studies, Falk identifies two significant differences on Einstein's brain that shed light on both his superior intelligence and his developmental struggles. Falk closely analyzed photographs of Einstein's brain that were taken within the first few hours of his death. These calibrated photographs, along with direct caliper measurements were the primary materials Falk used to reanalyze Einstein's brain. Two identifications, a long, unnamed sulcus (u), and a knob (K), are the emphasis of Falk's research because they are both unusual and uncommon (see Figure ​Figure11). Figure 1 Photographs of Einstein's brain that were taken in 1955, adapted from Witelson et al. (1999b) with identifications added here. (A) Dorsal view, (B) left lateral view, (C) right lateral view. Sulci: angular (a2), anterior occipital (a3), ascending limb ... The u located in the post-central gyrus suggests greater development in areas of the brain that correspond to the face and tongue (Falk, 2009). As the post-central gyrus has been shown to correlate with auditory “what” and “where” pathways, this unnamed sulcus might similarly correspond to Einstein's musical ability and aural discrimination (Alain et al., 2008). One remarkable feature of Einstein's brain is a K, an omega-shaped curve in the perirolandic region of the right hemisphere. Falk suggests this may be so pronounced in Einstein because of his extensive musical training on the violin. Gromko et al. (2009) reported that children with good aural discrimination skills had similar number recall accuracy. It is not a surprise that Einstein was both gifted in music and a genius in mathematics; the pronounced K may be the testament to his superior abilities in these subjects. In addition to the u and the K, Falk discovered noticeably wider post-central gyri at their lateral ends. This subtle, but important variation is suggested to partially account for Einstein's known language difficulties. Another significant component of Einstein's brain was an unusual symmetry particularly with the post-central inferior sulcus (pti). Violin players often develop ambidexterity (e.g., equal use of both hands) in order to successfully play their instrument, and this may have been the case with Einstein; the symmetry seen in his brain reinforces the long-time argument of Einstein's ambidexterity. Falk's analysis of Einstein's sulci is a new piece of the puzzle that addresses key features that separate Einstein from the mean. One of Falk's most groundbreaking findings is the presence of continuous precentral superior and inferior sulci (pcs and pci). These are present on both right and left hemispheres of Einstein's brain; symmetry not found in 98% of the 50 hemispheres scored by Ono et al. (1990:43; as cited in Falk, 2009). Falk's analysis of Einstein's brain sheds light on the relationship between his biology and his success. The most notable differences seen in his brain appear to have more to do with his training in the violin as a child, and less to do with his genetics. Interestingly, recent findings suggest that early musical training may indeed increase one's aptitude for math; Einstein is testament to this idea. These findings help us not only understand the genius of Albert Einstein, but also lend to understanding individual variation in mental aptitude and the effects of development on neuroanatomy and function. This study is similar to existing studies of patient populations (e.g., mental illness, developmental disorders, autism, and learning disorders) where functional neuroimaging researchers are employing voxel based morphometry to quantify individual variation in neuroanatomy related to illness-related deficits in cognition, affect, and sociality.

Insomnia in school-age children with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism

BackgroundAsperger syndrome (AS) and high-functioning autism (HFA) are pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) in individuals of normal intelligence. Childhood AS/HFA is considered to be often associated with disturbed sleep, in particular with difficulties initiating and/or maintaining sleep (insomnia). However, studies about the topic are still scarce. The present study investigated childhood AS/HFA regarding a wide range of parent reported sleep-wake behaviour, with a particular focus on insomnia.MethodsThirty-two 8–12 yr old children with AS/HFA were compared with 32 age and gender matched typically developing children regarding sleep and associated behavioural characteristics. Several aspects of sleep-wake behaviour including insomnia were surveyed using a structured paediatric sleep questionnaire in which parents reported their children's sleep patterns for the previous six months. Recent sleep patterns were monitored by use of a one-week sleep diary and actigraphy. Behavioural characteristics were surveyed by use of information gleaned from parent and teacher-ratings in the High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire, and in the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.ResultsParent-reported difficulties initiating sleep and daytime sleepiness were more common in children with AS/HFA than in controls, and 10/32 children with AS/HFA (31.2%) but none of the controls fulfilled our definition of paediatric insomnia. The parent-reported insomnia corresponded to the findings obtained by actigraphy. Children with insomnia had also more parent-reported autistic and emotional symptoms, and more teacher-reported emotional and hyperactivity symptoms than those children without insomnia.ConclusionParental reports indicate that in childhood AS/HFA insomnia is a common and distressing symptom which is frequently associated with coexistent behaviour problems. Identification and treatment of sleep problems need to be a routine part of the treatment plan for children with AS/HFA.

TREATING DEPRESSION OF A MENTALLY RETARDED ADULT

Increasing attention has been directed toward the treatment of clinical depression (Akistal and McKinney, 1975). However, despite the large number of studies that have recently appeared on the topic, depressed mentally retarded individuals have been largely ignored. Since the incidence of psychopathology among the mentally retarded is proportionally higher than.for individuals of normal intelligence, it follows that they may also evidence a high, if not higher, rate of depression than persons of normal intelligence (Sarason and Dorris, 1969). This fact is made more significant since it is generally conceded that depression is the most common psychological problem for which outpatients at mental health clinics are seen (Salkind, 1969). Cases where it has been necessary to provide psychopharmacological and behaviour therapy treatments in co-ordination to remediate symptoms of depression have been estimated at 40 to 60%(Detre and Jarecki, 1971). This situation has resulted because behaviour therapy is important for teaching coping skills, a defining characteristic of mental retardation that often leads to withdrawal and related symptoms of depression (Grossman, 1973). Because of this problem, providing a combined treatment of this nature for severe clinical depression of the mentally retarded is particularly important. Similarly, LI;lHL!lIg Lhl:! effieaey uf such a treatment . approach seems warranted given the estimated prevalence of clinical depression in the 'mentally retarded, perticularly for those persons attempting to adjust to community placement after years of institutional living (Coffman and Harris, 1980).

Behavior modification of food aversion in a profoundly retarded female: a case study.

Operant conditioning techniques have been successfully applied to anorexia ne~osa in individuals of normal intelligence (Bachrach, Erwin, & Mohr, 1956), but with severely or profoundly retarded individuals special problems arise. Since food is aversive, it cannot be used as a reward for eating, ar least during initial stages of conditioning. The choice of secondary reinforcers is restricted because of the retardate's limited responsiveness to sensory and social stimuli. This report summarizes a treatment approach which successfully used a secondary reinforcer to re-establish a primary reinforcer and restore eating in a profoundly retarded girl. S was a profoundly retarded 17-yr.-old female with ~henylketonuria. Over several months she &owed an-increasing aversion to food. when accepted as an inpatient for treatment, S was ingesting no food, either liquid or solid. Physical examination revealed her to be malnourished, anemic, and mildly dehydrated with a weight loss from 130 Ib. to 80 Ib. A complete medical evaluation which included a urinalysis, an upper GI series, a neurological evaluation, and an EEG revealed no organic cause for her aversion. Initially, S was consistently agitated and negativistic when presented with food, turning her head vigorously, throwing and push~ng away any food presented to her. After typical social reinforcers, i.e., praise, encouragement, and social attention, were ineffective in reinforcing approach toward food, it was noted S would respond positively to the ringing of a bell. Several simple motor acts, e.g., touching nose with finger, were shaped and reinforced by E's ringing the bell or by allowing S to play briefly with it. An attempt was then made to shape approach behavior toward a bottle of Coca-Cola. At first S reacted negatively to the Coca-Gla, pushing it away from her. Through pairing the presentation of the Coca-Cola with ringing of the bell, E was able to get S to hold the bottle in her hand. Successive approximations to raising the bottle to her mouth (with E modeling the desired behavior) were then reinforced with ringing of the bell. After several hours of such shaping, S began to imitate the desired behavior and drink the Coca-Cola. Once this behavior stabilized, a more nutritive liquid (Instant Breakfast) was substituted for the Coca-Cola. Several more hours of shaping were required, using the bell and sips of Coca-Cola as a reinforcer to get S to consume the Instant Breakfast. From this point, improvements in S's eating behavior proceeded more ra idly, and she began to gain weight. Both Coca-Cola and Instant Breakfast became rein6rcers for eating. Sernisolid and soft foods such as ice cream, scrambled eggs, and soup were gradually intre duced. Initially, bites of these foods were reinforced with sips of Coca-Cola and Instant Breakfast. Frequency of reinforcement was gradually reduced until the alternation of liquids and solids during a meal approximated normal behavior. Then foods from a regular menu were introduced with little difficulty. Finally, S's parents were trained in behavior management and participated in mealtime sessions. Since discharge and return home over one year ago S has regained and maintained normal body weight and presented no significant feeding problems.