Individuals Of Different Ethnic Backgrounds Research Articles

Demographics and Clinical Characteristics of Autosomal Dominant Spinocerebellar Ataxia in Canada.

Autosomal dominant (AD) spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) encompass a large group of rare disorders, which occurs in individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. To date, demographics, and clinical descriptions of AD SCA in Canada are lacking. A retrospective chart review of patients with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of AD SCAs was performed at five tertiary centers across Canada in the provinces of Quebec, Alberta, and Ontario. Demographic, genetic, and clinical information were collected and analyzed. A total of 203 patients with AD SCA were identified. Weighted estimated prevalence of AD SCA in three large Canadian provinces was calculated (2.25 cases per 100.000) which is in keeping with the figures documented worldwide. We found that the distribution of the most common SCA differed when comparing provinces. The most prevalent SCA diagnosis in Ontario was SCA3 (49%), while the most prevalent SCA diagnosis in Alberta and Quebec was SCA2 in26% and 47%, respectively. SCA6 was the third most prevalent SCA subtype in Quebec (14%), which was not seen as commonly in other provinces. SCA1 was uncommonly seen in both Alberta and Quebec, despite being common in Ontario. In this largest Canadian study, we describe the prevalence, distribution, and clinical characteristics of AD SCA. We found that the distribution of the most common SCA differed in the three provinces studied. This finding reflects the heterogenous nature of the Canadian population.

Role of genetic variants and host polymorphisms on COVID-19: From viral entrance mechanisms to immunological reactions.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), caused by a highly pathogenic emerging virus, is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). Knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of this virus is in infancy; however, investigation on the pathogenic mechanisms of the SARS‐CoV‐2 is underway. In COVID‐19, one of the most remarkable characteristics is the wide range of disease manifestation and severity seen across individuals of different ethnic backgrounds and geographical locations. To effectively manage COVID‐19 in the populations, beyond SARS‐CoV‐2 detection, serological response assessment, and analytic techniques, it is critical to obtain knowledge about at‐risk individuals and comprehend the identified variations in the disease's severity in general and also in the populations' levels. Several factors can contribute to variation in disease presentation, including population density, gender and age differences, and comorbid circumstances including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and obesity. Genetic factors presumably influence SARS‐CoV‐2 infection susceptibility. Besides this, COVID‐19 has also been linked with a higher risk of mortality in men and certain ethnic groups, revealing that host genetic characteristics may affect the individual risk of death. Also, genetic variants involved in pathologic processes, including virus entrance into cells, antiviral immunity, and inflammatory response, are not entirely understood. Regarding SARS‐CoV‐2 infection characteristics, the present review suggests that various genetic polymorphisms influence virus pathogenicity and host immunity, which might have significant implications for understanding and interpreting the matter of genetics in SARS‐CoV‐2 pathogenicity and customized integrative medical care based on population investigation.

Ethnic differences in metabolic cardiovascular risk among normal weight individuals: Implications for cardiovascular risk screening. The HELIUS study

Background and aimsCardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors may occur among a substantial proportion of normal weight individuals, particularly among some ethnic minorities. It is unknown how many of these individuals would be missed by commonly applied eligibility criteria for cardiovascular risk screening. Thus, we aim to determine cardiovascular risk and eligibility for cardiovascular risk screening among normal weight individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. Methods and resultsUsing the HELIUS study (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), we determined cardiovascular risk among 6910 normal weight individuals of Dutch, South-Asian Surinamese, African Surinamese, Ghanaian, Moroccan and Turkish background. High cardiovascular risk was approximated by high metabolic risk based on blood pressure, HDL, triglycerides and fasting glucose. Eligibility criteria for screening were derived from Dutch CVD prevention guidelines and include age ≥ 50 y, family history of CVD, or current smoking. Ethnic group comparisons were made using logistic regression. Age-adjusted proportions of high metabolic risk ranged from 12.6% to 38.4% (men) and from 2.7% to 11.5% (women). This prevalence was higher among most ethnic minorities than the Dutch, especially among women. For most ethnic groups, 79.9%–86.7% of individuals with high metabolic risk were eligible for cardiovascular risk screening. Exceptions were Ghanaian women (58.8%), Moroccan men (70.9%) and Moroccan women (45.0%), although age-adjusted proportions did not differ between groups. ConclusionEven among normal weight individuals, high cardiovascular metabolic risk is more common among ethnic minorities than among the majority population. Regardless of ethnicity, most normal weight individuals with increased risk are eligible for cardiovascular risk screening.

Drumming for community building: The development of the Community Drumming Network (CDN) and its impact in Singapore society

Abstract This article is based on the commissioned research report submitted to the National Arts Council (NAC) of Singapore on the Community Drumming Network (CDN). The eight-month-long qualitative field research is a collaborative project by the NAC and the UNESCO National Institute of Education Centre for Arts Research in Education (UNESCO NIE-CARE). The two main objectives of the research are: (1) to gain insights into the social impact of the CDN; and (2) to understand the mechanisms of the CDN in order to advocate and support the growth of arts interest groups1 in Singapore. The study was conducted from 30 January to 31 August 2012. The focus of this article is on the factors that make a successful arts interest group in Singapore, highlighting the synergy between community grassroots leaders and government statutory boards. In the Singapore context, government support and events have the capacity to encourage the growth of local interest groups. In the responses gathered in this study about the benefits of engaging in a community interest group, there appears to be a strong goal of harmonizing the diverse ethnic communities and creating intergenerational bonds.2 The model that ensues from this unique situation would hopefully be helpful in understanding local interest groups elsewhere. Central to the study is the art activity that was used to facilitate individuals of different ethnic backgrounds to come together as one community; this is the drum circle. This study shows how the drum circle is found to have the potential to be an effective tool in promoting racial harmony and to bridge the gap between generations. It features the voices of the community members who relentlessly engage in this activity in bringing out the meanings and benefits of the drum circle at the personal and communal levels.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine Usage across Nations (June 2014)

Between 2000-2010, the Asian population grew the most in America, increasing by 43%. It is important for health care workers to be able to provide culturally sensitive care to individuals of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Asians, who may be either Hindu or Buddhist. Many times, these individuals are more comfortable utilizing Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) for treatment before exploring Western treatment. CAM will be described in detail within the body of this paper. The differences in not only health care systems between Indonesia, Nepal, and the United States, but also CAM usage among the three countries will be discussed. Advantages and disadvantages in relation to CAM usage will be addressed as well as implications for nurses who are looking to widen their scope of practice.

Kami semua headbangers: Heavy metal as multiethnic community builder in Penang Island, Malaysia

Abstract This article investigates how heavy metal music promotes the development of multiethnic community interactions by focusing on Penang Island, Malaysia as a case study, where individuals of different ethnic backgrounds have intermingled in the heavy metal music scene as a consequence of the dearth of spaces dedicated to the practice and performance of such music. Through the use of ethnographic participant observation over the course of two years (2011–2013), I demonstrate how the heavy metal music scene in early 2010s Penang had outgrown the country’s ethnic structure in which heavy metal music was used to build a community where musicians of different ethnic backgrounds interact in settings where ethnicity is of reduced salience. Fostered by the forced cohabitation of the scarce spaces dedicated to extreme music practices in the country, I argue that the case of Penang’s heavy metal music scene outlines how the localization of imported forms of western popular music in a fast developing South East Asian society have challenged and reconfigured ethnic boundaries that are frequently reified in and through public and political discourses.

The impact of microRNA expression on cellular proliferation.

As an important class of non-coding regulatory RNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs) play a key role in a range of biological processes. These molecules serve as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression and their regulatory activity has been implicated in disease pathophysiology and pharmacological traits. We sought to investigate the impact of miRNAs on cellular proliferation to gain insight into the molecular basis of complex traits that depend on cellular growth, including, most prominently, cancer. We examined the relationship between miRNA expression and intrinsic cellular growth (iGrowth) in the HapMap lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. We found a substantial enrichment for miRNAs (53 miRNAs, FDR<0.05) correlated with cellular proliferation in pooled CEU (Caucasian of northern and western European descent) and YRI (individuals from Ibadan, Nigeria) samples. Specifically, 119 miRNAs (59%) were significantly correlated with iGrowth in YRI; of these miRNAs, 18 were correlated with iGrowth in CEU. To gain further insight into the effect of miRNAs on cellular proliferation in cancer, we showed that over-expression of miR-22, one of the top iGrowth-associated miRNAs, leads to growth inhibition in an ovarian cancer cell line (SKOV3). Furthermore, over-expression of miR-22 down-regulates the expression of its target genes (MXI1 and SLC25A37) in this ovarian cancer cell line, highlighting an miRNA-mediated regulatory network potentially important for cellular proliferation. Importantly, our study identified miRNAs that can be used as molecular targets in cancer therapy.

Spectrum of NOTCH3 mutations in Korean patients with clinically suspicious cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is caused by mutations in the NOTCH3 gene on chromosome 19. Previous studies showed that NOTCH3 contains mutational hotspots that can vary among individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. In this study, we investigated the spectrum of NOTCH3 mutations in Korean patients with CADASIL. We retrospectively analyzed 156 patients who underwent NOTCH3 gene testing for molecular diagnosis of CADASIL using Sanger sequencing with a tiered approach. First, we screened previously reported mutational hotspots (exons 2-6, 8, 11, 18, 19, and 22). If no mutation was detected and samples were available, we extended our analysis to additional exons (7, 9, 10, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, and 25). In 45 of 156 patients (28.8%), 29 mutations and 16 novel variants of unknown significance (VUS) were identified. The p.R544C mutation in exon 11 of NOTCH3 was the most frequently observed mutation (n = 8), followed by p.R75P in exon 3 (n = 7), p.R332C in exon 6 (n = 3), p.R54C in exon 2 (n = 2), and p.R90C in exon 3 (n = 2). Among the VUS, p.R1175W in exon 22, p.S414C in exon 8, and p.N1207S in exon 22 were found in 5, 3, and 2 patients, respectively. Other mutations and VUS were observed in 1 patient each. Although this was not a prospective, nationwide cohort study, the results above suggested that the spectrum of NOTCH3 mutations might be different in Koreans than in individuals of Caucasian ethnicity. Therefore, further analysis of Koreans with CADASIL might be necessary to implement a Korean-specific mutation screening paradigm.

Prevalence of long face pattern in Brazilian individuals of different ethnic backgrounds

Objective:The long face pattern is a facial deformity with increased anterior total facial height due to vertical excess of the lower facial third. Individuals with long face may present different degrees of severity in vertical excess, as well as malocclusions that are difficult to manage. The categorization of vertical excess is useful to determine the treatment prognosis. This survey assessed the distribution of ethnically different individuals with vertical excess according to three levels of severity and determined the prevalence of long face pattern. Material and Methods:The survey was comprised of 5,020 individuals of Brazilian ethnicity (2,480 females and 2,540 males) enrolled in middle schools in Bauru-SP, Brazil. The criterion for inclusion of individuals with vertically impaired facial relationships was based on lip incompetence, evaluated under natural light, in standing natural head position with the lips at rest. Once identified, the individuals were classified into three subtypes according to the severity: mild, moderate, and severe. Then the pooled sample was distributed according to ethnical background as White (Caucasoid), Black (African descent), Brown (mixed descent), Yellow (Asian descent) and Brazilian Indian (Brazilian native descent). The Chi-square (χ2) test was used (p<0.05) to compare the frequency ratios of individuals with vertically impaired facial relationships in the total sample and among different ethnicities, according to the three levels of severity. Results:The severe subtype was rare, except in Black individuals (7.32%), who also presented the highest relative frequency (45.53%) of moderate subtype, followed by Brown individuals (43.40%). In the mild subtype, Yellow (68.08%) and White individuals (62.21%) showed similar and higher relative frequency values.Conclusions:Black individuals had greater prevalence of long face pattern, followed by Brown, White and Yellow individuals. The prevalence of long face pattern was 14.06% in which 13.39% and 0.68% belonged to moderate and severe subtypes, respectively.

Culture but not gender modulates amygdala activation during explicit emotion recognition

BackgroundMounting evidence indicates that humans have significant difficulties in understanding emotional expressions from individuals of different ethnic backgrounds, leading to reduced recognition accuracy and stronger amygdala activation. However, the impact of gender on the behavioral and neural reactions during the initial phase of cultural assimilation has not been addressed. Therefore, we investigated 24 Asians students (12 females) and 24 age-matched European students (12 females) during an explicit emotion recognition task, using Caucasian facial expressions only, on a high-field MRI scanner.ResultsAnalysis of functional data revealed bilateral amygdala activation to emotional expressions in Asian and European subjects. However, in the Asian sample, a stronger response of the amygdala emerged and was paralleled by reduced recognition accuracy, particularly for angry male faces. Moreover, no significant gender difference emerged. We also observed a significant inverse correlation between duration of stay and amygdala activation.ConclusionIn this study we investigated the “alien-effect” as an initial problem during cultural assimilation and examined this effect on a behavioral and neural level. This study has revealed bilateral amygdala activation to emotional expressions in Asian and European females and males. In the Asian sample, a stronger response of the amygdala bilaterally was observed and this was paralleled by reduced performance, especially for anger and disgust depicted by male expressions. However, no gender difference occurred. Taken together, while gender exerts only a subtle effect, culture and duration of stay as well as gender of poser are shown to be relevant factors for emotion processing, influencing not only behavioral but also neural responses in female and male immigrants.

HLA allele distributions and associations in a cohort of LTNPs from China

Background Various studies have shown that HLA polymorphisms are associated with susceptibility/resistance to HIV-1 infection, and therefore influence the rate of disease progression of HIV/AIDS in individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. Association of HLA with HIV/AIDS has been studied extensively within Caucasians and Africans. However, limited data are available from China. Methodology HIV Positive Samples were collected from the SM village in Henan province: SM Cohort. These subjects got infected in the early 90s after taking part in an illegal plasma donation scheme that became contaminated by HIV-1 infection. Our data show that they were infected by a single or a few closely related clade B strains. Control samples collected from a neighboring village. DNA was extracted, HLA-typing done and HLA analysis computed using Arlequin and SAS. Results

5-HTTLPR Polymorphism: Analysis in South African Autistic Individuals

The serotonin transporter promoter length polymorphism (5-hydroxytryptamine transporter length polymorphism; 5-HTTLPR) has long been implicated in autism and other psychiatric disorders. The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) has a positive effect on treating some symptoms of autism. The effects of these drugs vary in individuals because of the presence of the S or L allele of 5-HTTLPR. Studies performed on various autistic populations have found different allele frequencies for the L and S alleles. Allele frequencies and genotypes of the South African autistic populations (African, mixed, and Caucasian) were compared with matching South African ethnic control populations. The *S/*S genotype was found to be highly significantly associated with all the South African autistic ethnic populations. In the South African African population the *S/*S genotype was present in 7 (33%) of the autistic individuals but in none of the control subjects, yielding infinitely large odds of developing autism. The odds of developing autism with the *S/*S genotype compared to the *L /*L genotype increased 10.15-fold in the South African mixed group and 2.74-fold in the South African Caucasian population. The allele frequency of the South African autistic population was also compared with studies of other autistic populations around the world, and highly significant differences were found with the Japanese, Korean, and Indian population groups. The difference was not significant for the French, German, Israeli, Portuguese, and American groups. This is the first South African study of autistic individuals of different ethnic backgrounds that shows significant differences in allele and genotype frequencies of 5-HTTLPR. The results of this study open new avenues for investigating the role of transmission of the L and S alleles in families with autism in South Africa.

5-HTTLPR Polymorphism: Analysis in South African Autistic Individuals

The serotonin transporter promoter length polymorphism (5-hydroxytryptamine transporter length polymorphism; 5-HTTLPR) has long been implicated in autism and other psychiatric disorders. The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) has a positive effect on treating some symptoms of autism. The effects of these drugs vary in individuals because of the presence of the S or L allele of 5-HTTLPR. Studies performed on various autistic populations have found different allele frequencies for the L and S alleles. Allele frequencies and genotypes of the South African autistic populations (African, mixed, and Caucasian) were compared with matching South African ethnic control populations. The *S/*S genotype was found to be highly significantly associated with all the South African autistic ethnic populations. In the South African African population the *S/*S genotype was present in 7 (33%) of the autistic individuals but in none of the control subjects, yielding infinitely large odds of developing autism. The odds of developing autism with the *S/*S genotype compared to the *L/*L genotype increased 10.15-fold in the South African mixed group and 2.74-fold in the South African Caucasian population. The allele frequency of the South African autistic population was also compared with studies of other autistic populations around the world, and highly significant differences were found with the Japanese, Korean, and Indian population groups. The difference was not significant for the French, German, Israeli, Portuguese, and American groups. This is the first South African study of autistic individuals of different ethnic backgrounds that shows significant differences in allele and genotype frequencies of 5-HTTLPR. The results of this study open new avenues for investigating the role of transmission of the L and S alleles in families with autism in South Africa.

Abstract SSY01-02: Notch and radiation resistance in glioma stem cells

Abstract SSY01-02: Notch and radiation resistance in glioma stem cells

Abstract SSY01-04: Discovery and validation of genome-wide genetic signatures of chemotherapy susceptibility: A translational model

Abstract SSY01-04: Discovery and validation of genome-wide genetic signatures of chemotherapy susceptibility: A translational model

FunctionalPMS2hybrid alleles containing a pseudogene-specific missense variant trace back to a single ancient intrachromosomal recombination event

Sequence exchange between PMS2 and its pseudogene PMS2CL, embedded in an inverted duplication on chromosome 7p22, has been reported to be an ongoing process that leads to functional PMS2 hybrid alleles containing PMS2- and PMS2CL-specific sequence variants at the 5'-and the 3'-end, respectively. The frequency of PMS2 hybrid alleles, their biological significance, and the mechanisms underlying their formation are largely unknown. Here we show that overall hybrid alleles account for one-third of 384 PMS2 alleles analyzed in individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. Depending on the population, 14-60% of hybrid alleles carry PMS2CL-specific sequences in exons 13-15, the remainder only in exon 15. We show that exons 13-15 hybrid alleles, named H1 hybrid alleles, constitute different haplotypes but trace back to a single ancient intrachromosomal recombination event with crossover. Taking advantage of an ancestral sequence variant specific for all H1 alleles we developed a simple gDNA-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay that can be used to identify H1-allele carriers with high sensitivity and specificity (100 and 99%, respectively). Because H1 hybrid alleles harbor missense variant p.N775S of so far unknown functional significance, we assessed the H1-carrier frequency in 164 colorectal cancer patients. So far, we found no indication that the variant plays a major role with regard to cancer susceptibility.

Ethnic variations in facial skin neurosensitivity assessed by capsaicin detection thresholds

Ethnic variations in sensitive skin have not been thoroughly explored and remain controversial. To objectively assess ethnic variations in facial skin neurosensitivity through individual detection thresholds of topically applied capsaicin. The single-blind, controlled study was performed in 144 women from three ethnicities: Asian, African, and Caucasian. Five solutions with increasing capsaicin concentration were successively applied to one side of nasolabial folds, while the other side simultaneously received the vehicle as control. The test was discontinued when the volunteer reported on the capsaicin side a sensation whatever its nature. Otherwise the experimenter continued the test, using the next solution with higher capsaicin content and so on, until the subject experienced a sensation on the capsaicin side. Each ethnic group was divided into six sub-groups according to the level of sensitivity to capsaicin, i.e. from detection of the lowest concentration up to no detection of the highest concentration, 100-fold higher. Asian women tended to have higher capsaicin detection thresholds than Caucasians, but lower thresholds than Africans. Nevertheless, the distribution did not greatly differ between the three ethnicities. The capsaicin skin neurosensitivity test is painless and the changes across individuals of different ethnic backgrounds appear minimal.

Ethnomedicine in healthcare systems of the world: a Semester at Sea pilot survey in 11 countries

Background: An understanding and appreciation for the varied healthcare systems in use throughout the world are increasingly vital for medical personnel as patient populations are now composed of ethnically diverse people with wide-ranging belief systems.Objective: While not a statistically valid survey, this pilot study gives a global overview of healthcare differences around the world.Design: A pilot study of 459 individuals from 11 different countries around the world was administered by 33 students in the upper division course, People, Pathology, and World Medicine from Semester at Sea, Fall 2007, to ascertain trends in healthcare therapies. Open-ended surveys were conducted in English, through an interpreter, or in the native language.Results: Western hospital use ranked highly for all countries, while ethnomedical therapies were utilized to a lesser degree. Among the findings, mainland China exhibited the greatest overall percentage of ethnomedical therapies, while the island of Hong Kong, the largest use of Western hospitals.Conclusions: The figures and trends from the surveys suggest the importance of understanding diverse cultural healthcare beliefs when treating individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. The study also revealed the increasingly complex and multisystem-based medical treatments being used internationally.

Colorimetric Evaluation of Facial Skin and Free Flap Donor Sites in Various Ethnic Populations

To determine the optimal colour match for free tissue donor sites transferred to defects of the cheek and neck in a multicultural population. A prospective measurement of the colour of potential free flap donor sites and recipient sites in healthy volunteers. A tertiary care academic health science centre. Sixty-four healthy volunteers (Caucasian, black, South Asian, Southeast Asian) underwent noninvasive skin colour measurement of the cheek and neck, as well as a standard set of potential free tissue donor sites using a Minolta CR 300 (Konica-Minolta Canada; Markham, ON, Canada) chromameter. Measurement was done using derived colour measurements based on the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage or International Commission on Light (CIE) L*a*b* tristimulus values. E* is a derived value of colour difference between sites using the L*a*b* measures. Statistical analysis was done using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Variations exist between optimal donor sites in individuals of different ethnic backgrounds. Mean E* values suggest that in Caucasians, Southeast Asians, and South Asians, the upper extremity and trapezius flaps most closely approximate the recipient sites. In blacks, the variation in mean E* values is small and a wide variety of flaps provide a colour match to the cheek and neck. Luminance values support the observations regarding E*. Wide variations exist between individuals of different ethnic backgrounds in terms of optimal donor sites for the best colour match to surgical defects of the cheek and neck. In Caucasians, it appears that upper extremity sites, including the forearm and lateral arm flaps, provide the best colour match. Similar observations can be made in South Asians and Southeast Asians, with upper extremity flaps providing the best colour match. In blacks, there does not seem to be much variation in colour across the commonly used donor site, and a larger panel of flaps will provide an appropriate colour match in this subset of patients.

SUBJECT AND SUBSTRATUM : ON JAPANESE IMPERIAL NATIONALISM

This paper addresses the theoretical and philosophical questions concerning how an individual identified him/herself as a member of an ethnic, racial, or national community in the context of Japanese Imperialist discourse during the 1930's. The central focus is Tanabe Hajime. Together with his mentor Nishida Kitaro, Tanabe established the so-called Kyoto School of Philosophy in the 1920's. With his background in the philosophy of sciences and mathematics, and modern European metaphysics, Tanabe created a philosophical argument for the multi-ethnic nation-state, and proposed the universalistic concept of Japanese national identity which positively evaluates and integrates individuals of different ethnic backgrounds into one. He constructed the Logic of Species (Shu no Ronri) according to which a member of the Japanese Empire could identify with Japan precisely because she or he can participate in the Japanese State which represents the whole, inclusive of all the ethnic groups. Relying upon the Hegelian concept of negativity, he explained the two different levels of belonging: particularistic belonging to the specific identity (shu) such as ethnicity, and universalistic belonging to the generic identity (rui). And he further demonstrated that ethnic identity is far from fixed, and is brought into the subject's self-awareness only insofar as the subject negates it and is free from it. In other words, the subject becomes aware of her/his ethnic origin only when s/he negates it thereby participating in a higher order of social formation, the State, under which ethnic multiplicity is subsumed. Thus the species of ethnicity is constituted only insofar as it is negatively mediated by the genus, that is, the State. Tanabe saw the essential form of human freedom in this negative relation of the subject to his ethnicity, and understood a subject's belonging to a nation as a dialectic and negative process of mediation between the species and the genus. While postwar Japan was built upon the premises of ethnic nationalism, Japanese imperial nationalism of the pre-war period was afraid of ethnic nationalisms which could challenge the Empire's rhetoric of multiethnicity and pluralism. Tanabe's Logic of Species was a response to such needs of Japanese Imperialism and it represented a philosophical attempt to undermine ethnic nationalism. Not surprisingly, it served as a metaphysical foundation for the idea of the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere.