Occurrence Of Individual Species Research Articles

Factors Affecting the Winter Distribution of Birds in Forests at the Eastern Edge of Europe

We show for the first time the results of a study into the spatial distribution of birds in forests at the eastern edge of Europe (Republic of Tatarstan, Russia) and changes from early to late winter. A transect method was used to census randomly selected plots spread over a large geographical area in the winters 2018/9–2022/3. We used regression and ordination methods to assess the influence of key environmental factors on species richness, total density of birds, biological diversity, and the probabilities of occurrence of individual species. The most abundant bird species in early winter was the Willow Tit, and in the late winter was the Common Redpoll. Compared with the end of the 20th century, the number of wintering bird species has increased in the study area, likely due to climate warming. Species richness, total density, and the Shannon Index of diversity were higher in early winter than in late winter. Species richness and the Shannon Index were also higher at low elevations and in the west of the study region. Our research shows strong ecological-geographical differences in the preferences of individual bird species in the studied forests. However, almost without exception, birds had a higher probability of occurrence at lower elevation and toward the west.

Changes in tropical terrestrial vertebrate communities along two anthropogenic gradients: Forest degradation and accessibility

AbstractForest degradation and hunting are two major drivers of species declines in tropical forests, often associated with forest production activities and infrastructure. To assess how the medium‐to‐large bodied terrestrial vertebrate community varied across these two main gradients of anthropogenic impact, we conducted a camera‐trap survey across three production forest reserves in central Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, each with different past and current logging regimes. We analyzed data from a 32‐species community using a Bayesian community occupancy model, investigating the response of occurrence, diversity, and composition to forest degradation and accessibility (a proxy for hunting pressure). We found forest degradation to be a strong driver of occurrence of individual species. Such responses led to declines in diversity and shifts in community composition, where forest‐dependent species decreased while disturbance‐tolerant species increased in occupancy probability with increasing forest degradation. Accessibility had a weaker effect on community diversity and species occupancy, and low‐level hunting pressure and management of access to our study sites likely played an important role in mitigating accessibility effects. Nonetheless, our results showed accessibility had compounding effects on a wildlife community already affected negatively by forest degradation. Despite the impacts of forest degradation and accessibility on the terrestrial vertebrate community, our results highlight how the application of more sustainable practices—reducing forest disturbance and managing unauthorized access to logging roads—resulted in more intact wildlife communities. Understanding how both disturbances combined affect the terrestrial vertebrate community is essential for evaluating and developing effective sustainability guidelines.Abstract in malay is available with online material.

Beyond salinity: Plants show divergent responses to soil ion composition

AbstractAimIn salt‐affected environments, salinity shapes ecosystem functions and species composition. Apart from salinity, however, we know little about how soil chemical factors affect plant species. We hypothesized that specific ions, most of which contribute to salinity, co‐determine plant niche differentiation. We asked if the importance of ions differs for species with (halophytes) and without (associated species) physiological adaptations to saline soils.LocationCarpatho‐Pannonian region (Central and Eastern Europe).Time period2005–2021.Major taxa studiedVascular plants.MethodsWe recorded species occurrences and collected soil samples in 433 plots in saline habitats. We measured pH, salinity (electrical conductivity), and concentrations of Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, Na+, SO42− Cl−, CO32− and mineral nitrogen (mN) and calculated the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). For 88 species, we fitted response curves with Huisman–Olff–Fresco (HOF) models. To study ions' effects on species composition and ions' variance, we compared unconstrained and constrained ordinations and performed a principal component analysis. We used random forests to analyse the importance of ions for individual species and created two‐dimensional species niche plots for key ions.ResultsIon concentration niches varied among species and did not necessarily correspond to soil salinity or alkalinity. We frequently observed monotonic, sigmoidal model responses, while skewed unimodal responses were rare. Ions explained a considerable proportion of species compositional variation. Particularly, Na+, SO42−, Cl−, and CO32− contributed to the ions' variance. Na+, followed by SO42−, Cl−, CO32−, Ca2+, Mg2+, and mN, was most important for the occurrence of individual species. Compared to associated species, Na+, SO42−, and mN were significantly less important for halophytes, whereas Cl− and CO32− played a significant role.Main conclusionsWe show that ion composition co‐determines niche differentiation in saline soils, suggesting evolved physiological adaptations in halophytes. Our study calls for incorporating high‐resolution data on soil ion composition in ecological research.

Community assembly processes and drivers shaping marine fish community structure in the North Sea

To preserve natural ecosystems and their biodiversity, there is a need to anticipate future ecosystem changes through better understanding of underlying drivers and assembly processes determining community composition. Assembly processes can be understood as a set of filters acting at different spatio‐temporal scales that jointly define the structure and composition of communities. Here, we explore the underlying assembly processes shaping marine fish species distribution and composition, using the heavily exploited North Sea. Our aims are to study 1) the relative importance of the different assembly processes shaping marine fish communities, 2) the key environmental drivers determining species distributions and composition, and to 3) quantify the role of traits in determining species niches and responses to the environment. Specifically, we fit a joint species distribution model (JSDM) using 31 years of standardized scientific bottom trawl survey data for 67 fish species. We use a set of environmental variables and species' traits representing morphology, life history, reproduction and diet, while also accounting for phylogenetic relationships of species. Environmental variables, primarily related to temperature, explained over one third of the variance in species occurrence, while spatial effects explained half of the variability across species. This shows that environmental filtering and spatially‐structured processes are the main drivers shaping the community assembly. Furthermore, among the total variance of individual species occurrences, 12.5% could be explained by traits, which improve the mechanistic understanding on species responses to environmental change. Hence, model predictions from JSDMs accounting for traits, environmental niches and potential interactions among multiple species can provide relevant simulations and forecasts with the potential to inform spatial management and conservation efforts aiming to preserve biodiversity and its associated services vital for human well‐being.

Making the competitive exclusion principle operational at the biogeographical scale using fuzzy logic

In biogeography the competitive exclusion principle (CEP) has been confirmed in some cases but not in others. This has fueled an unresolved debate between those advocating niche theory or the neutral theory in biodiversity and biogeography. We suggest that this situation mainly arises from the use of crisp logic, where the CEP is defined as either completely true or false. We propose the application of the fuzzy concepts of favorability (the degree to which environmental conditions are propitious for the occurrence of individual species) and favorableness (the degree to which environmental conditions are simultaneously favorable for competing species) to operationalize a fuzzy version of the CEP. Favorability was obtained by performing species distribution models applying favorability functions, while favorableness was derived from the application of the fuzzy intersection between the favorability for competing species. Then we plotted individual favorability values along the gradient of favorableness. Two potentially competing species would coexist in high-favorableness locations, as the demands of both species would be well fulfilled. In locations of low favorableness, the result would be either autecological exclusion of both species or autecological segregation, as abiotic conditions are unfavorable for at least one of the species. Competitive exclusion would occur at the intermediate stretch of the favorableness gradient, as the conditions would be good enough for persistence of each species separately but not enough for permanent coexistence. According to this theoretical framework, the observed probability that a location belongs to the intermediate favorableness area given that the two species co-occur in this location should be lower than expected according to the environmental probability models for the two species. We tested this prediction on published data about the distribution of pairs of native and introduced deer species in Great Britain, using a Bayesian approach. In two thirds of comparisons between a native and an introduced deer species the predictions of the fuzzy CEP were corroborated, which suggests that these are the pairs of species and the specific geographical areas affected by competitive exclusion. This is important both theoretically and for biodiversity conservation planning.

STATUS OF REGENERATION OF MAJOR TREE SPECIES IN THE SUNDARBANS

Status of regeneration of 30 tree species in the Sundarbans has been provided based on data generated from 1203 Temporary Sample Plots (TSPs) during the Forest Resources Management Project (FRMP) Forest Inventory of the Sundarbans in 1996 and 1997. The extents of occurrence of individual species and mean number of seedlings and saplings per hectare have been provided which represents the whole of the Sundarbans. It was found that sundri (Heritiera fomes) constituted 54.92 % seedlings and 28.73 % saplings, while it was respectively 16.23 % and 19.64 % for gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) as well as 16.52 % and 44.36 % for goran (Ceriops decandra). Other species provided 12.33 % seedlings and 7.27 % saplings. Regeneration status of sundri, gewa, goran and amur (Amoora cuculata) of 1996-97 was compared with the data generated in January 2003 from 36 Sample Plots in 10 compartments of the Sundarbans. Comparison revealed that there occurred significant (p=0.05) increase in sundri and amur seedlings in 2003 as compared to 1996-1997 level.

The Clinical View on Streptococcus anginosus Group – Opportunistic Pathogens Coming Out of Hiding

Three distinct streptococcal species: Streptococcus anginosus, Streptococcus intermedius, and Streptococcus constellatus, belonging to the Streptococcus anginosus group (SAG), also known as Streptococcus milleri group, have been attracting clinicians and microbiologists, not only as oral commensals but also as opportunistic pathogens. For years they have been simply classified as so called viridans streptococci, and distinct species were not associated with particular clinical manifestations. Therefore, description of SAG members are clearly underrepresented in the literature, compared to other medically relevant streptococci. However, the increasing number of reports of life-threatening infections caused by SAG indicates their emerging pathogenicity. The improved clinical data generated with the application of modern molecular diagnostic techniques allow for precise identification of individual species belonging to SAG. This review summarizes clinical reports on SAG infections and systematizes data on the occurrence of individual species at the site of infection. We also discuss the issue of proper microbiological diagnostics, which is crucial for further clinical treatment.

Molecular Data Reveal a Cryptic Diversity in the Genus Urotricha (Alveolata, Ciliophora, Prostomatida), a Key Player in Freshwater Lakes, With Remarks on Morphology, Food Preferences, and Distribution.

Species of the ciliate genus Urotricha are key players in freshwater plankton communities. In the pelagial of lakes, about 20 urotrich species occur throughout an annual cycle, some of which play a pivotal role in aquatic food webs. For example, during the phytoplankton spring bloom, they consume a remarkable proportion of the algal production. In ecological studies, urotrich ciliates are usually merely identified to genus rank and grouped into size classes. This is unsatisfying considering the distinct autecological properties of individual species and their specific spatial and temporal distribution patterns. As a basis for future research, we characterized in detail four common urotrich morphotypes, i.e., specimens identified as U. furcata and tentatively as U. agilis, U. pseudofurcata, and U. castalia, using state-of-the-art methods. We used an integrative polyphasic approach, in which morphological studies (in vivo observation, silver staining methods, scanning electron microscopy) were linked with a molecular approach exploiting four different gene fragments as taxonomic DNA barcodes with different resolution potential (SSU rDNA, ITS-1, ITS-2, hypervariable V4 and V9 regions of the SSU rDNA). We shed light on the diversity of urotrich ciliates as well as on their global distribution patterns, and annual cycles. Additionally, we coupled individual species occurrences and environmental parameters, and subsequently modeled the distribution and occurrence, using logistic regressions. Furthermore, for one strain putatively identified as U. castalia, we ascertained the optimal cultivation media and food preferences. Thereby, our comprehensive view on these important freshwater ciliates that frequently occur in environmental high throughput sequencing datasets worldwide will allow future studies to better exploit protistan plankton data from lakes.

Using the background of fish photographs to quantify habitat composition in marine ecosystems

Citizen science initiatives that collect opportunistic photos, or recordings, of living organisms (e.g. iNaturalist) are increasingly recognized for their importance in monitoring biodiversity. These projects are focussed primarily on recording the occurrence of individual species in space and time. Each photo potentially also contains additional valuable information. Here, we explored the amount and potential value of background information captured in fish photographs as a method to characterise reef habitats. The habitat in the background of fish photographs shared on iNaturalist was analysed for 6 sites across Australia. To measure accuracy of the habitat data captured in the iNaturalist photos, the habitat composition of each site was compared to standardised photo-quadrats from the citizen science project Reef Life Survey (RLS). Across all sites, 70-85% of the fish photographs from iNaturalist contained discernible biotic habitat in the background. Habitat composition as measured from the background of opportunistic fish photographs was similar to those of standardised surveys from RLS. In the face of rapid environmental change, opportunistic photographs collected by recreational divers represent a complementary way to rapidly and cost-effectively collect habitat data at more reefs and more frequently than is generally feasible with standardised scientific surveys.

Local management or wider context: What determines the value of farm revegetation plantings for birds?

AbstractSmall‐scale revegetation plantings on farms are common to restoration efforts in agricultural regions worldwide. Such plantings provide habitat for diverse faunal groups. A key question concerns the degree to which their value for biodiversity is influenced by the features of individual plantings, which can be controlled by local land managers, or by broader‐scale drivers in the wider landscape.We developed a conceptual model of factors of potential influence on birds in revegetation plantings at different spatial scales. To test this model, we surveyed native birds in 133 plantings in south‐eastern Australia. Regression models were used to compare the effect of ‘habitat‐’, ‘patch‐’, ‘farm‐’ and ‘landscape‐’ scale variables on species richness (of woodland and open country birds) and the occurrence of individual species in plantings. We further tested whether the influence of variables representing local actions was swamped by larger‐scale variables.Birds that occupied plantings were influenced by variables at all scales. Woodland birds were consistently richer and more likely to use older plantings (patch scale) with higher floristic richness (habitat scale), and surrounded by more wooded vegetation (at patch, farm and landscape scales). Open country species responded positively to the density of live trees (habitat scale) and the presence of large remnant tree/s (patch scale) in plantings.Variables representing local management actions generally maintained a strong influence on birds in plantingsirrespectiveof the influence of broader drivers. Few relationships between bird species and planting attributes were contingent on features of the surrounding landscape; those that were suggested woodland birds aremore responsiveto local actions when broad‐scale vegetation cover is greater.Synthesis and applications. Land managers can enhance the conservation value of plantings by (a) planting a greater diversity of trees and shrubs and (b) locating revegetation near other vegetation or around mature remnant tree/s. These actions will measurably increase the value of plantings for birds, irrespective of larger‐scale drivers. Nonetheless, the important role of increased vegetation cover across broader agricultural landscapes emphasises that the collective efforts of individuals and larger initiatives are critical for conservation.

Ant community responses to farmland use and revegetation in a fragmented agricultural landscape

Recent alarming losses of insects from agricultural landscapes in multiple countries around the world have brought into sharp focus the urgent need to identify ways to manage these landscapes to avoid further biodiversity decline. Identifying the drivers of insect declines, such as land use change, is critical to this effort. We examined ant communities at the interface between remnant vegetation patches and three adjoining farmland types (wheat crop, rested from cropping and restoration plantings) in a fragmented landscape in temperate Australia. We asked: do ant communities and occurrence of individual species differ between remnant patches and farmlands with more intensive farmland use (restoration plantings < rested farmlands < wheat crop)? We recorded 13,283 ants belonging to 102 species from 30 genera. Excluding 21 singletons, 27 species only occurred in remnant patches compared to ten species found only in farmlands. Ant community composition in wheat crop and rested farmlands significantly differed from their adjacent remnant patches and were more homogeneous. In contrast, ant communities from restoration plantings in farmland were not significantly different in composition from those in the adjacent remnant patch. The large, aggressive Australian meat ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus) showed significantly higher occurrence in the remnant patch than all farmland types, and we suggest that the absence of this strongly interacting species from farmlands may have contributed to biotic homogenisation. Our findings show that native vegetation provides crucial habitat resources for many ant species that are not provided by farmlands, and native plantings can, in some cases, ameliorate negative effects of farmland clearing over relatively short time scales (<7 years). Agricultural intensification that involves loss of remnant native vegetation or reduced revegetation will contribute to ongoing losses and changes to ant biodiversity in farming landscapes. However, replanting native vegetation can lead to rapid restoration, signifying a possible simple remedy to insect declines.

Differential responses of anuran assemblages to land use in agroecosystems of central Argentina

Agriculture has been identified as one of the largest contributors to the current global biodiversity crisis. Amphibians are declining worldwide, and the loss of habitat and water contamination related to agricultural land uses have been suggested as the main drivers of this phenomenon. In central Argentina, the Pampean Region combines the highest rates of grassland replacement of South America, the lowest percentage of protected areas of the country, and the lack of studies exploring diversity patterns of native amphibians occurring in agroecosystems. To fill these gaps, we surveyed anuran (frogs and toads) assemblages from 342 breeding ponds located in three ecological units from central Argentina (Rolling, Flooding, and Inland Pampas) during three breeding seasons (2015–2018). We aimed to evaluate the importance of breeding habitat characteristics (ponds) and the surrounding landscape features as drivers of anuran diversity occurring in agricultural landscapes under the primary land uses of the region (cattle grazing and soybean cropping). We tested for the effects of breeding habitat characteristics and landscape features on anuran richness, abundance, and individual species occurrence, using GLMM models and information-theoretic procedures. Results indicated that species richness and total abundances were differently influenced by the habitat and landscape features across the ecological units. Overall, vegetation cover of the ponds and land use were the most important variables influencing richness and anuran abundance. The positive influence of pond vegetation cover on anuran assemblages was registered for all the ecological units, while different patterns emerged when we analyzed the effects of land use surrounding the ponds. Land use expressed as the percentage of soy crop surrounding the ponds negatively affected richness and abundance of anurans of the Flooding Pampas, but the inverse relation was found for assemblages occurring in the Inland Pampas. Moreover, multiple competing models suggested a positive correlation between anuran diversity and land-use heterogeneity, and pond density. The differential responses of anuran assemblages among the ecological units can be related to a combination of several factors encompassing regional soil characteristics (i.e., soil texture), land-use intensity as well as requirements of anuran species. We discussed the particularities of each ecological unit in order to recognize those conservation efforts that will favor anuran diversity in these altered landscapes and further contribute to achieving agricultural sustainability.

Size does matter: Passive sampling in urban parks of a regional bat assemblage

We studied the occurrence of bats in urban parks in the city of Madrid (Spain), and the resulting patterns were compared with bat occurrence in the surrounding region. In this way, we addressed if the presence of individual species in the study parks was positively related to their regional occurrence and the way some geographical and environmental traits affected bat richness and composition in urban parks. We analysed urban parks varying in area, structure and distance to the edge of the town. During two years, bats occurring in parks were sampled using ultrasound detectors. A similar sampling method was carried out for four years in the countryside around the city to detect the regional pool of species. The results show that the occurrence of individual species in urban parks was a reduced sample of the regional pool of species and that there was a positive relationship between the occurrence of species in urban parks and the surrounding countryside. This pattern suggests that the more distributed bats at a regional scale were the most frequent ones in parks within the urban matrix. Park area was the main determinant of bat richness. In addition, bat richness distribution reported a nested pattern of species loss as park area decreased. This suggests that bat occurrence in the study parks can be interpreted as the results of a passive sampling of individual species occurring at the regional scale, and that park size was the main determinant of the species occurrence. We conclude that more proactive approaches to bat conservation could be carried out in order to improve the presence of some rare species in urban parks.

A power law model for analyzing spatial patterns of vegetation abundance in terms of cover, biomass, density, and occurrence: derivation of a common rule.

The cover, biomass, density, and frequencies of occurrence of individual species are important measures for characterizing plant communities. Examination of the statistical properties of vegetation data obtained through a quadrat survey provides insight into the spatial structure of plant communities and plant species diversity. In community analysis, we assume that x is theoretical variance calculated under the assumption that the abundance of a species follows a random distribution among quadrats (which we can obtain easily), and y is quadrat-to-quadrat variance calculated based on the observed data for a species. If the relationship y = Axb or logy = logA + blogx holds for two measurable traits of the plant community, x and y, the relationship is referred to as the power law, where A and b are constants. Then, an ideal index for measuring the spatial heterogeneity (δ) of the vegetation variable for each species was defined as δ = logy - logx. If δ = 0, the spatial heterogeneity of the species is random; if δ > 0, the heterogeneity exceeds a random pattern; and if δ < 0, the heterogeneity is less than a random pattern. In previous works in 2001 and 2014, we demonstrated that using the power law based on occurrence and density is a valuable approach to vegetation surveys and analyses. In this paper, the power law is mathematically extended and practical evidence is given for its application to cover and biomass of each species within a plant community. All measurements of cover, biomass, density, and frequency of occurrences were fitted to the power law, and plots of δ against the abundance values of these variables for each species in the community well described abundance and spatial pattern of each species in the environment. The power law is applicable not only to small-scale quadrats such as 50 × 50cm but also to large-scale vegetation maps obtained using remote sensing and aerial photographic techniques.

Frog occupancy of polluted wetlands in urban landscapes.

Urban sprawl and the rising popularity of water-sensitive urban design of urban landscapes has led to a global surge in the number of wetlands constructed to collect and treat stormwater runoff in cities. However, contaminants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, in stormwater adversely affect the survival, growth, and reproduction of animals inhabiting these wetlands. A key question is whether wildlife can identify and avoid highly polluted wetlands. We investigated whether pond-breeding frogs are attempting to breed in wetlands that affect the fitness of their offspring across 67 urban wetlands in Melbourne, Australia. Frog species richness and the concentration of contaminants (heavy metals and pesticides) were not significantly related, even in the most polluted wetlands. The proportion of fringing vegetation at a wetland had the greatest positive influence on the number of frog species present and the probability of occurrence of individual species, indicating that frogs inhabited wetlands with abundant vegetation, regardless of their pollution status. These wetlands contained contaminant levels similar to urban wetlands around the world at levels that reduce larval amphibian survival. These results are, thus, likely generalizable to other areas, suggesting that urban managers could inadvertently be creating ecological traps in countless cities. Wetlands are important tools for the management of urban stormwater runoff, but their construction should not facilitate declines in wetland-dependent urban wildlife.

Landscape context is more important than wetland buffers for farmland amphibians

In regions with high rates of wetland loss, remnant wetlands and constructed ponds can provide important breeding habitat for amphibians. However, such wetlands are often embedded in a matrix of agricultural fields, potentially putting species within these wetlands at risk. One recommendation for conservation of amphibians in agriculture-dominated landscapes is to maintain a buffer of permanent vegetation around the wetland. However, it is not clear how wide wetland buffers must be to effectively conserve amphibians in agriculture-dominated landscapes or what vegetation types are suitable buffer vegetation. Furthermore, it is not clear whether wetland buffers produce similar—or better—conservation outcomes for amphibians than actions conducted at larger spatial extents. We addressed these questions using data from anuran (frog and toad) breeding call surveys in 36 wetlands in rural eastern Ontario, Canada. First, we tested for the effects of 49 different wetland buffer measurements on anuran richness, relative anuran abundance, and the abundance/probability of occurrence of individual species. These 49 measurements represented all combinations of seven different ways to measure the wetland buffer size and seven types of buffer vegetation. Wetland buffer size was measured as the minimum width of buffer vegetation contiguous with the wetland and proportion of the area within 5, 16, 30, 50, 120, or 300 m of the wetland containing buffer vegetation that was contiguous with the wetland. Then, to compare the strength of effect of wetland buffers versus landscape context on anurans, we compared the wetland buffer measurement with the strongest positive effect on each anuran response (from the previous analysis) to the effects of three landscape-scale variables: area of woodland; area of wetlands, streams, rivers, and lakes; and road density. We did not detect positive effects of wetland buffers on anuran richness or relative anuran abundance. This is because positive effects of wetland buffers on individual species were rare, i.e. positive effects were only supported for two of the six species with enough data to model individually: American toads (Anaxyrus americanus) and green frogs (Lithobates clamitans). Furthermore, we found that the landscape context had much stronger effects on relative anuran abundance than the wetland buffer, with effect sizes ranging from 4 (road density) to 14 (woodland cover) times that of the wetland buffer. These findings suggest that guidelines for anuran conservation in agricultural landscapes should generally focus on protection of terrestrial habitat at the landscape scale rather than on maintenance of wetland buffers.

The contribution of broadscale and finescale habitat structure to the distribution and diversity of birds in an Alpine forest-shrub ecotone

In a mountain context, the forest-shrub ecotone is an area of high biodiversity. Relatively little is known about the habitat requirements of birds in this habitat, yet it is facing potential threats from changes in grazing practices and climate change. Moreover, it is not clear at which scale habitat associations should be assessed in Alpine birds. Further information on key habitat components affecting bird communities of the ecotone is needed in order to inform management strategies to counteract potential habitat loss, and to better inform predictions of how bird communities may be affected by future environmental change. Data on bird occurrence and broadscale (land cover) and finescale (vegetation structure and shrub species composition) habitat variables were collected in an Alpine forest-shrub ecotone in Val Troncea (northwestern Italian Alps) in order to address two objectives: to identify the key habitat variables associated with the occurrence of individual species and with the diversity of the bird community; and, to assess which scale of habitat measurement (broadscale, finescale or both combined) is needed to model bird occurrence. Broadscale variables, or combinations of broadscale and finescale variables, tended to have the best performing models. When combined models performed best, shrub species identity was included in many cases. Shrubs also played an important role in explaining variations in species diversity and richness. Vegetation structure was of relatively little importance, either for individual bird species or for species richness and diversity. These findings suggest that management should strive to maintain a mosaic of habitats whilst minimizing forest encroachment, which could be achieved through targeted grazing. Broadscale habitat data and data on shrub species composition should provide a sufficient basis for identifying relevant species-specific habitat parameters in a mountain environment in order to model future scenarios of effects of habitat change on the bird community of the alpine forest-shrub ecotone.

Biodiversity benefits of vegetation restoration are undermined by livestock grazing

Extensive areas of the Earth's terrestrial surface have been subject to restoration, but how best to manage such restored areas has received relatively limited attention. Here, we quantify the effects of livestock grazing on bird and reptile biota within 61 restoration plantings in south‐eastern Australia. Using path analysis, we identified some of the mechanisms giving rise to differences in patterns of species richness and individual species occurrence between grazed and ungrazed plantings. Specifically, we found evidence of both: (1) indirect effects of grazing on various elements of biodiversity mediated through changes in vegetation condition (primarily the leaf litter layer), and (2) direct effects of grazing on biodiversity (irrespective of modification in vegetation cover attributes), possibly as a result of trampling by livestock. We also uncovered evidence of direct effects on bird and reptile biota of other planting attributes such as planting width and planting age. The results of our study suggest that the biodiversity benefits of restoration programs can be undermined by grazing, especially by uncontrolled grazing. We suggest that where the objective of vegetation restoration is to enhance biodiversity conservation, grazing within plantings should be limited or excluded.

Resistance to Antibiotics and the Occurrence of Genes Responsible for the Development of Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus Bacteria Isolated From the Environment of Horse Riding Centers

The purpose of the study was to identify species, to determine the drug resistance profile, and to evaluate the occurrence of genes responsible for the development of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus bacteria isolated from the environment of horse riding centers. Staphylococci were isolated from air, manure, and nostrils of horses located in three horse riding centers, differing in horse stabling system—box stall stabling (OJK Pegaz and KJK Szary) and free-range stabling (SKH Nielepice). The dominant species was Staphylococcus vitulinus. A large variation in the frequency of occurrence of individual species between horse riding centers was determined. Resistance to antibiotics was determined by means of disc diffusion method and polymerase chain reaction technique to detect mecA genes responsible for methicillin resistance. In total, 408 strains were collected, most from SKH Nielepice, and least from OJK Pegaz. The highest resistance was found to gentamicin and tetracycline. Multidrug-resistant isolates were also detected in KJK Szary (10), in SKH Nielepice (5), and in OJK Pegaz (4). Methicillin resistance determined by disk diffusion assay was found in 23 strains, while the mecA gene was detected in 142 isolates. A total of 137 strains holding the mecA gene are coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), which, as shown by our own studies, may be a reservoir of methicillin resistance. Most commonly, the mecA gene was found in staphylococci isolated in KJK Szary (61.70%). The mecA gene was detected in five strains that belonged to Staphylococcus aureus species and came from horses in SKH Nielepice, indicating the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains in these animals.

Dynamics of gaps, vegetation, and plant species with and without fire

Areas lacking dominant plants, or gaps, can support high diversity and specialist species. Previous chronosequence research in Florida rosemary scrub showed indistinct gap area patterns with fire and the dependence of certain species on gaps. We hypothesized that fire and gap size would affect extinction, colonization, diversity, and vegetation composition. In 2011-12, we revisited gaps first sampled in 2003, recording vascular plant and ground lichen occurrence by species, gap area, and burn history. We analyzed gap, vegetation, and species dynamics using linear mixed models, with Florida rosemary scrub patch as a random factor. Gap areas declined quickly during the first 10 yr postfire and then stabilized. Between 2003 and 2011-12, unburned gaps usually remained extant or split, whereas burned gaps usually merged. Unburned gaps tended to shrink, whereas burned gaps became larger. Species richness was positively related to gap area, fire, and their interaction. Over time, richness declined in unburned gaps and increased in burned gaps. Local extinction and colonization of individual species were related to fire between 2003 and 2011-12. In burned gaps, ground lichens disappeared, but many herbaceous species, including those killed by fire, increased occupancy. Colonization of most species was favored by burning, large gaps, or both. In Florida rosemary scrub, fire and increasing gap size increased species richness and many individual species occurrences, reduced local extinctions, and increased colonizations. Therefore, land management activities that encourage the creation and maintenance of large gaps will promote biodiversity in this system.