Individual Leopards Research Articles

New record of strawberry leopard (Panthera pardus) in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania.

Strawberry or red leopards are a rare colour morph of leopard (Panthera pardus) characterised by spot markings that are red or brown instead of black, thought to be a result of a mutation in the tyrosinase-related protein (TYRP1) gene. We report the first record of this phenotype on the African continent outside of South Africa, from Selous Game Reserve in southern Tanzania. One female leopard with strawberry colouration was documented out of 373 individual leopards (0.3%) identified through camera trap surveys conducted from 2020 to 2022 over a combined area of more than 4600 km2 in the Nyerere-Selous landscape.

Searching for spots: a comprehensive survey for the Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr in Saudi Arabia

AbstractThe Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr is categorized as Critically Endangered, with < 200 individuals estimated to remain in the wild. Historically the species ranged over an extensive area of western Saudi Arabia but, with no confirmed sightings since 2014, investigating potential continued presence and distribution is of critical conservation importance. We present the results of a comprehensive survey designed to detect any remaining Arabian leopard populations in Saudi Arabia. We conducted 14 surveys, deploying 586 camera-trap stations at 13 sites, totalling 82,075 trap-nights. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 843 members of local communities across the Arabian leopard's historical range to assess the presence of leopards, other predators and prey species. Predator scats were collected ad hoc by field teams and we used mitochondrial DNA analysis to identify the originating species. We obtained 62,948 independent photographs of animals and people, but none were of Arabian leopards. Other carnivores appeared widespread and domestic animals were numerous, but wild prey were comparatively scarce. Three questionnaire respondents reported sightings of leopards within the previous year, but targeted camera-trap surveys in these areas did not yield evidence of leopards. Of the 143 scats sent for analysis, no DNA was conclusively identified as that of the leopard. From this extensive study, we conclude there are probably no surviving, sustainable populations of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia. Individual leopards might be present but were not confirmed. Any future Arabian leopard conservation in Saudi Arabia will probably require reintroduction of captive-bred leopards.

Large and in charge: cortisol levels vary with sex, diet, and body mass in an Antarctic predator, the leopard seal

Evaluating physiological responses in the context of a species’ life history, demographics, and ecology is essential to understanding the health of individuals and populations. Here, we measured the main mammalian glucocorticoid, cortisol, in an elusive Antarctic apex predator, the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx). We also examined intraspecific variation in cortisol based on life history (sex), morphometrics (body mass, body condition), and ecological traits (δ15N, δ13C). To do this, blood samples, life history traits, and morphometric data were collected from 19 individual leopard seals off the Western Antarctic Peninsula. We found that adult leopard seals have remarkably high cortisol concentrations (100.35 ± 16.72 μg/dL), showing the highest circulating cortisol concentration ever reported for a pinniped: 147 μg/dL in an adult male. Leopard seal cortisol concentrations varied with sex, body mass, and diet. Large adult females had significantly lower cortisol (94.49 ± 10.12 μg/dL) than adult males (120.85 ± 6.20 μg/dL). Similarly, leopard seals with higher isotope values (i.e., adult females, δ15N: 11.35 ± 0.69‰) had lower cortisol concentrations than seals with lower isotope values (i.e., adult males, δ15N: 10.14 ± 1.65‰). Furthermore, we compared cortisol concentrations across 26 closely related Arctoid taxa (i.e., mustelids, bears, and pinnipeds) with comparable data. Leopard seals had the highest mean cortisol concentrations that were 1.25 to 50 times higher than other Arctoids. More broadly, Antarctic ice seals (Lobodontini: leopard seal, Ross seal, Weddell seal, crabeater seal) had higher cortisol concentrations compared to other pinnipeds and Arctoid species. Therefore, high cortisol is a characteristic of all lobodontines and may be a specialized adaptation within this Antarctic-dwelling clade. Together, our results highlight exceptionally high cortisol concentrations in leopard seals (and across lobodontines) and reveal high variability in cortisol concentrations among individuals from a single location. This information provides the context for understanding how leopard seal physiology changes with life history, ecology, and morphology and sets the foundation for assessing their physiology in the context of a rapidly changing Antarctic environment.

Urban Leopards of National Capital: Estimating Density and Occupancy of Leopard (Panthera pardus) in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary, New Delhi, India

Studies, in recent past have revealed that obligate carnivores are adapting to human dominated landscapes. Leopards, amongst other large carnivores are highly adaptable and can survive in a range of environments. Although any sporadic sightings of leopards have occurred in New Delhi. However, any reliable population and occupancy estimation was lacking from the region, whereas understanding of population density estimation is important in providing local and regional level conservation and management of the species. Our study is conducted to better understand leopard status and population density estimation in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary of New Delhi. During 588 camera trap nights, we detected 8 individual leopards. Based on spatial capture-recapture framework the leopard density inside the sanctuary was estimated at 4.5 ± 0.019 leopards/100km² despite very high anthropogenic pressure. Occupancy modelling based on Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation showed species distribution across the sanctuary which was highest in the areas adjoining densely populated region of the city from where it was observed that large number of vehicle and people cross the sanctuary daily to for their work. The moderate leopard density in this small protected area with high human population pressure can be due to the absence of any other large carnivore, less competition with co-predators because of their low numbers (i.e., hyenas), high availability of prey base and inclusive protected area management. We encourage further research to explore the landscape connectivity between the neighboring suitable leopard habitats like Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan, via Aravalli hill range of South Haryana till Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary of New Delhi for understanding wildlife corridor connectivity in the Northern Aravalli Range at landscape level

Count me in: Leopard population density in an area of mixed land‐use, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Count me in: Leopard population density in an area of mixed land‐use, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Current Genetic Structure Analysis of Leopard Cats Reveals a Weak Disparity Trend in Subpopulations in Beijing, China.

Simple SummaryHabitat fragmentation is an important factor leading to the decline in the leopard cat population in Beijing. Habitat loss may further result in population shrinkage, which increases the risk of inbreeding and genetic decline. To reveal the segregation effects of highway construction and infrastructure expansion on population genetic variation, this study analyzed the genetic structure of leopard cats in five nature reserves in the mountain surroundings of Beijing. The results showed that a mild disparity trend exists in Baihuashan and Songshan subpopulations, due to habitat segregation and dispersal difficulties. We suggest that the genetic structures of the leopard cat population be monitored every 5 years to detect any changes. If needed, individuals can be artificially exchanged among different subpopulations to maintain the viability of this wild cat in Beijing. In the face of habitat shrinkage and segregation, the survival of wild cats looks bleak. Interpreting their population genetic structure during habitat fragmentation is critical in planning effective management strategies. To reveal the segregation effects of road construction and human settlements on the population genetic structure, we analyzed non-invasive fecal DNA samples from leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) from five nature reserves in mountainous areas around Beijing. We focused on microsatellite markers. A total of 112 individual leopard cats were identified among 601 samples of scat, and moderate population genetic diversity was detected. Microsatellite-marker-based genetic differentiation (Fst) and gene flow (Nm) showed a weak trend toward discrepancies in the Baihuashan and Songshan subpopulations, which indicated habitat fragmentation effects on individual dispersal. Because the segregated subpopulations may suffer a high risk of genetic diversity loss, we suggest that their genetic structure be monitored with more molecular markers to detect any changes, and that female individuals be artificially introduced as needed to maintain the viability of the leopard cat subpopulations in Beijing.

Evidence for a critical leopard conservation stronghold from a large protected landscape on the island of Sri Lanka

The decline and extirpation of large carnivore populations can lead to cascading effects in natural ecosystems. An understanding of large carnivore population densities, distribution and dynamics is therefore critical for developing effective conservation strategies across landscapes. This is particularly important in island environments where species face increased extinction risk due to genetic isolation coupled with local losses of finite habitat. The Sri Lankan leopard Panthera pardus kotiya is one of two remaining island-living leopards on Earth and the only apex predator in Sri Lanka. Despite its iconic status in Sri Lanka, robust research on the species has been limited to only a handful of scientific studies, limiting meaningful scientific recommendations for the species’ conservation and management. In this study, we conducted a single season camera trap survey in Sri Lanka’s largest protected area, Wilpattu National Park (1317 km 2 ), located in the country’s northwest. Our objective was to estimate key ecological state variables of interest (density, abundance, sex-specific movement and spatial distribution) of this leopard subspecies. Our results indicate that Wilpattu National Park supports a density of 18 individuals/100 km 2 (posterior SD=1.5; 95% HPD interval=16–21) with a mean abundance of 144 (posterior SD=15) individual leopards and a healthy sex ratio (f:m=2.03:1). The estimated activity range for male leopards > 2 years old was 49.53 km 2 (Posterior SD=3.43; HPD interval=43.09–56.41) and for female leopards > 2 years old was 22.04 km 2 (Posterior SD=1.82; HPD interval=18.34–25.65). This density falls at the higher end of published estimates for the species anywhere in its global range, based on similar methods. Given Sri Lanka’s limited size, this national park system should be considered as a critical stronghold that maintains a source population of leopards, contributing to the long-term population viability of leopards in the larger landscape.

Plasticity in the morphometrics and movements of an Antarctic apex predator, the leopard seal

Animals that display plasticity in behavioral, ecological, and morphological traits are better poised to cope with environmental disturbances. Here, we examined individual plasticity and intraspecific variation in the morphometrics, movement patterns, and dive behavior of an enigmatic apex predator, the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx). Satellite/GPS tags and time-depth recorders were deployed on 22 leopard seals off the Western Antarctic Peninsula. Adult female leopard seals were significantly larger (454±59 kg) and longer (302±11 cm) than adult males (302±22 kg, 276±11 cm). As females were 50% larger than their male counterparts, leopard seals are therefore one of the most extreme examples of female-biased sexual size dimorphism in marine mammals. Female leopard seals also spent more time hauled-out on land and ice than males. In the austral spring/summer, three adult female leopard seals hauled-out on ice for 10+ days, which likely represent the first satellite tracks of parturition and lactation for the species. While we found sex-based differences in morphometrics and haul-out durations, other variables, including maximum distance traveled and dive parameters, did not vary by sex. Regardless of sex, some leopard seals remained in near-shore habitats, traveling less than 50 kilometers, while other leopard seals traveled up to 1,700 kilometers away from the tagging location. Overall, leopard seals were short (3.0±0.7 min) and shallow (29±8 m) divers. However, within this general pattern, some individual leopard seals primarily used short, shallow dives, while others switched between short, shallow dives and long, deep dives. We also recorded the single deepest and longest dive made by any leopard seal—1, 256 meters for 25 minutes. Together, our results showcased high plasticity among leopard seals tagged in a single location. These flexible behaviors and traits may offer leopard seals, an ice-associated apex predator, resilience to the rapidly changing Southern Ocean.

A Multi-Point Identification Approach for the Recognition of Individual Leopards (Panthera pardus kotiya)

Simple SummaryAll of the previous research on photography-based leopard identification was conducted based on the assumption that leopard spots and rosette formations do not change in shape or form. We observed 29 instances of changes to spot and rosette formations in continuously observed leopards at Yala National Park, Block 1. Since the previous approaches have flaws and errors, the same leopard may be misdiagnosed and counted numerous times, overestimating leopard populations if the spot and rosette formation of a leopard has changed. To address this issue, we developed the multi-point leopard identification method, which is a novel process for identifying Sri Lankan leopards. The minimum leopard population of Yala National Park, Block 1, on 31 March 2021, was established during the study.Visual leopard identifications performed with camera traps using the capture–recapture method only consider areas of the skin that are visible to the equipment. The method presented here considered the spot or rosette formations of either the two flanks or the face, and the captured images were then compared and matched with available photographs. Leopards were classified as new individuals if no matches were found in the existing set of photos. It was previously assumed that an individual leopard’s spot or rosette pattern would not change. We established that the spot and rosette patterns change over time and that these changes are the result of injuries in certain cases. When compared to the original patterns, the number of spots may be lost or reduced, and some spots or patterns may change in terms of their prominence, shape, and size. We called these changes “obliterate changes” and “rejig changes”, respectively. The implementation of an earlier method resulted in a duplication of leopard counts, achieving an error rate of more than 15% in the population at Yala National Park. The same leopard could be misidentified and counted multiple times, causing overestimated populations. To address this issue, we created a new two-step methodology for identifying Sri Lankan leopards. The multi-point identification method requires the evaluation of at least 9–10 spot areas before a leopard can be identified. Moreover, the minimum leopard population at the YNP 1 comprises at least 77 leopards and has a density of 0.5461 leopards per km2.

Assessment of Big Cats Abundance and Distribution in Sengwa Wildlife Research Area (SWRA): An Analysis of Multiple Methods

Large carnivores are considered key species and their presence signify health of the ecosystem. Mostly used methods to establish big cats abundance and spatial distribution in SWRA consist of spoor survey, individual observations, analysis of patrol data and interviews with safari operators. In this study, four methods were used to establish current abundance and distribution of big cats in Sengwa and to find advantages and disadvantage for each method used. To do this, spoor survey along twelve transects were done between 13th to 20th April 2020. Oral interviews with local professional hunters and park managers was done between 1st and 10th April 2020, whilst analysis of patrol reports from January 2018 to December 2019 were also done. Descriptive statistics was used for analysis of interview data. For other three methods, data were summarised in excel and quantitatively analysed. Mapping of spatial distribution of big cats from secondary data and spoor surveys were done in QGIS software. Five lion spoors and twenty-one leopard spoors were recorded during spoor survey. Two individual leopards and zero lions were also recorded. Lion spoors were mostly recorded along river valleys while leopard spoors were recorded in different habitats and terrain. Future related studies should focus on use of other survey design and combination of methods such as radio calls and camera traps as well as use of GPS enabled collars for monitoring and estimating abundance.

Investigating the effect of social grouping on the behaviour of captive leopards

Big cats are both popular and well represented in zoological collections worldwide, and there is considerable interest in evidence-based studies to develop best practice husbandry guidelines. The majority of big cat species, including the leopard Panthera pardus are typically solitary in the wild, whereas in zoos they are sometimes maintained as pairs or larger groups. This study investigates the behaviour of six leopards housed as a trio, a pair, and singleton in the Parco Faunistico Valcorba, Italy. Behavioural data were collected using instantaneous focal sampling at one-minute intervals with continuous recording for events, and Electivity Index was used to assess the use of each enclosure zone by individual leopards. Poisson regressions were used to determine whether individual leopard, weather and decibel levels were predictors of behaviour change. Overall, the Poisson regressions were significant for all behaviours except allogrooming. Both affiliative and aggressive behaviours were observed most frequently in the recently mixed trio, and these were often initiated by the male. By contrast, the pair of leopards rarely interacted with one another. Irrespective of condition, leopards tended to overutilize a few key zones in their exhibits and did not use their enclosures evenly. However, there were differences in zone overlap: the pair housed leopards appeared to use different zones to one another, whilst the trio of leopards appeared to use similar zones. These data suggest that group housing may be a viable housing strategy for leopards, provided that the animals are given the opportunity to avoid each other should they choose to do so. However, personality and compatibility of leopards is likely to be a confounding factor that must be considered when developing group-housing husbandry strategies. Further studies with a focus on group housing of other felid species would be valuable to evidence-base their captive husbandry.

Camera trap based monitoring of a key wildlife corridor reveals opportunities and challenges for large mammal conservation in Assam, India

To assess the corridor’s functionality and prioritize protection of one of the corridors connecting Kaziranga National Park and the forests of Karbi Anglong District in Assam, India, we conducted a camera-trap study from 2011 to 2016. A total of 10,895 trap nights revealed 39 mammal and avian species, several of which were new records for the area. Relative Abundance Index was calculated as a measure of photo-capture rates from the photographic events, and annual trend for selected species and seasonal trend for elephants were analyzed. The indices showed that elephants used the corridor patch most frequently (RAI = 8.81), followed by hog deer (RAI = 2.77), while hog badgers were most rarely recorded (RAI = 0.02). Seasonality of the movement pattern of elephants showed increased use during the monsoon season. Records of nine individual tigers and six individual leopards, along with other rare and endangered species indicate functionality and regular use of the critical corridor by wildlife, crossing over between Kaziranga and Karbi Anglong hills, maneuvering through the busy National Highway—37 that cuts across the historically connected landscape. The results obtained from the study can be used to prepare a conservation action strategy to secure the corridor for safe passage of wildlife.

Improved Automated Recognition of Leopards from Photographs

Two improvements on the automated image recognition of individual leopards (Panthera pardus) are presented. Firstly, a new method of automated segmentation on images, with a guaranteed side view of the animal, allows for a region of interest to be calculated automatically, reducing the manual effort of the image processing substantially. Secondly, improvements on the automated recognition of citizen science images with extreme viewpoints are detailed.

Policy to On-ground Action: Evaluating a Conflict Policy Guideline for Leopards in India

Amongst the large carnivores, the leopard Panthera pardus is a highly adaptable, elastic species. Because of these ecological traits, it comes into direct conflict with people, posing serious consequences to the lives of those affected, thus impeding larger conservation goals. In India, one of the key mitigation strategies towards leopard conflict includes capture and translocation of individual leopards. In response to severe conflict, a policy guideline was brought out in 2011 by the government that discouraged capture and translocation of leopards. In this study we evaluate the impact of these guidelines and responses of the field managers towards them. A total of 357 leopards were captured in Karnataka state during 2009–2016. The data collected on these captures indicates that since the government guidelines were issued, leopard captures have increased by 9.67 per year, and monthly translocations increased threefold. Captured animals were translocated mostly to protected areas (85.5%), taken to captivity (10.8%), and a few resulted in capture mortality (3.8%). A total of eight primary reasons were listed for capture of leopards, with livestock depredation (38.1%) being the main reason. Questionnaire surveys revealed that 64% of the managers were unaware of the presence of the guidelines, and only 1.9% followed them. The guidelines make a set of thoughtful suggestions to reduce conflict, but large-scale improvement is required by bringing in field-level managers, communities, media personnel, and other stakeholders while developing such policies. Similarly, targeted outreach and capacity building is mandatory to raise awareness and for effective implementation of the guidelines.

Scent-marking strategies of a solitary carnivore: boundary and road scent marking in the leopard

Scent marking, where individuals deposit signals on objects in the environment, is a common form of chemical signalling in mammals and is thought to play a critical role in maintaining social organization within wide-ranging, spatially dispersed populations. Senders, however, can incur scent-marking costs through mark production, time investment in patrolling and depositing/maintaining mark sites, and increased risk of detection by predators and prey. To mitigate these costs, senders can adapt spatial patterns of scent marking to increase the probabilities of their scent marks being encountered by intended receivers. Relatively little, however, is known of the spatial scent-marking placements of many wide-ranging carnivore species, with most studies focusing on scent mark form and function. Here, we used detailed observational data collected from over 7 years of following individual leopards, Panthera pardus, and high-resolution GPS radiocollar data to investigate the spatial placements of scent marks within a leopard population in northern Botswana. We found that male leopards within our study area had a boundary scent-marking strategy, investing more in maintaining marking sites in peripheral areas of their home range. We also found that leopards scent-marked over four times as frequently and investigated over three times as frequently when travelling on roads than when travelling along natural routes, suggesting that roads may function as key locations for olfactory information. Compared to leopards from less productive ecosystems, such as the Kalahari, our results (1) suggest that leopards can be highly flexible in their marking strategies, with strategies impacted by the surrounding environment, and (2) provide evidence that human modifications of the environment now play an important role in facilitating social cohesion within this solitary carnivore.

Assessing the health risks of reintroduction: The example of the Amur leopard, Panthera pardus orientalis.

Translocation of wildlife as a means of reintroducing or reinforcing threatened populations is an important conservation tool but carries health risks for the translocated animals and their progeny, as well as wildlife, domestic animals and humans in the release area. Disease risk analyses (DRA) are used to identify, prioritize and design mitigation strategies to address these threats. Here, we use a DRA undertaken for Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis) to illustrate how specific methodology can optimize mitigation strategy design. A literature review identified a total of 98 infectious hazards and 28 non-infectious hazards. Separate analyses were undertaken for disease risks in leopards from hazards of source origin (captive zoo collections and the transit pathway to the Russian Far East), or of destination origin (in breeding enclosures and wider release areas); and for disease risks in other wildlife, domesticated species or humans, similarly from hazards of source or destination origin. Hazards were assessed and ranked as priority 1, priority 2, priority 3 or low priority in each of the defined scenarios. In addition, we undertook a generic assessment of stress on individual leopards. We use three examples to illustrate the process: Chlamydophila felis, canine distemper virus (CDV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). We found that many potentially expensive screening procedures could be performed prior to export of leopards, putting the onus of responsibility onto the zoo sector, for which access to diagnostic testing facilities is likely to be optimal. We discuss how our methods highlighted significant data gaps relating to pathogen prevalence in the RussianFarEast and likely future unpredictability, in particular with respect to CDV. There was emphasis at all stages on record keeping, meticulous planning, design, staff training and enclosure management, which are relatively financially inexpensive. Actions to minimize stress featured at all time points in the strategy and also focussed on planning, design and management.

The Un-Common Leopard: presence, distribution and abundance in Gallies and Murree Forest Division, Northern Pakistan

The leopard Panthera pardus is thought to be sparsely distributed across Pakistan and there is limited understanding of the demographic structure and distribution of the species in this country. We conducted a study, from April to July 2017, and, from March to June 2018, in the northern Pakistan region to establish the presence and distribution of leopards, mindful at the outset of their abundance in that region. The presence of leopards was confirmed in the Swat, Dir and Margalla Hills region. The leopard population in Gallies and Murree Forest Division was preliminarily assessed via camera-trapping. As a result, a total of 63 potential areas of leopard population were identified initially. The leopard was photo captured at 27 locations (hotspots) with 34 capture events yielding 195 images over the course of 3,022 active trap-nights. Camera trap images were examined to identify leopard individuals using their rosette patterns on both the left and right flanks and the dorsal side of the tail. Ultimately, 15 leopard individuals were identified during the first survey period of the study and four individuals were recaptured in the second survey period, together with three new individuals. The detection probability of individual leopards from MARK varied from 0.10 and 0.20 with a population size (preliminarily estimated to be 16–25 (SE = 3.18) in 2107 and 7–13 (SE = 1.87) in 2018. This gave a density of 4.5 to 9.5 leopards/100 km2, respectively. A home range of various individual leopards was found to extend from the Gallies Reserved Forest to the extended corridors of Guzara Forest. In general, this study suggests that the Guzara Forest is crucially important for the conservation of leopards in the region as this area allows them extended movement while searching for food and mates.

Lions and leopards coexist without spatial, temporal or demographic effects of interspecific competition.

Although interspecific competition plays a principal role in shaping species behaviour and demography, little is known about the population-level outcomes of competition between large carnivores, and the mechanisms that facilitate coexistence. We conducted a multilandscape analysis of two widely distributed, threatened large carnivore competitors to offer insight into coexistence strategies and assist with species-level conservation. We evaluated how interference competition affects occupancy, temporal activity and population density of a dominant competitor, the lion (Panthera leo), and its subordinate competitor, the leopard (Panthera pardus). We collected camera-trap data over 3years in 10 study sites covering 5,070km2 . We used multispecies occupancy modelling to assess spatial responses in varying environmental and prey conditions and competitor presence, and examined temporal overlap and the relationship between lion and leopard densities across sites and years. Results showed that both lion and leopard occupancy was independent of-rather than conditional on-their competitor's presence across all environmental covariates. Marginal occupancy probability for leopard was higher in areas with more bushy, "hideable" habitat, human (tourist) activity and topographic ruggedness, whereas lion occupancy decreased with increasing hideable habitat and increased with higher abundance of very large prey. Temporal overlap was high between carnivores, and there was no detectable relationship between species densities. Lions pose a threat to the survival of individual leopards, but they exerted no tractable influence on leopard spatial or temporal dynamics. Furthermore, lions did not appear to suppress leopard populations, suggesting that intraguild competitors can coexist in the same areas without population decline. Aligned conservation strategies that promote functioning ecosystems, rather than target individual species, are therefore advised to achieve cost- and space-effective conservation.

Short Communication: The existence of Javan Leopard (Panthera pardus melas Cuvier, 1809) in the non-conservation forest areas of Cisokan, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia

Shanidah SS, Partasasmita P, Hudoso T. Parikesit, Febriato P, Meganatara EN. 2018. Short Communication: The existence of Javan Leopard (Panthera pardus melas Cuvier, 1809) in the non-conservation forest areas of Cisokan, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 19: 42-46. There is no accurate data about the number of individual leopards in Java Island in both conservation and non-conservation areas. In West Java, deforestation for plantations and agriculture is widespread, although it is unknown if leopard uses these human-altered habitats. Therefore, it is important to research the existence of leopards in Non-Conservation Forest Area (NCFA) in western Java, Indonesia. The aim of this research is to investigate: (i) evidence of leopard’s existence (ii) encounter rate of leopard’s existence; and (iii) estimation of individual leopards in NCFA, Cisokan, Cianjur, and West Java. Indirect data were obtained from sign surveys for feces, scrapes, footprints, and residual prey. We also obtained direct data with camera traps. We found 13 footprints, 2 feces, 4 scrapes, and 2 direct encounters by observers. The camera trap data recorded 12 independent leopard events and 8 leopard photos/100 trap days. Estimated number of leopards in Cisokan ranged 1-3 individuals.

Density and carrying capacity in the forgotten tigerland: Tigers in the understudied Nepalese Churia.

While there are numerous wildlife ecology studies in lowland areas of Nepal, there are no in-depth studies of the hilly Churia habitat even though it comprises 7642 km2 of potential wildlife habitat across the Terai Arc. We investigated tiger, leopard and prey densities across this understudied habitat. Our camera trapping survey covered 536 km2 of Churia and surrounding areas within Chitwan National Park (CNP). We used 161 trapping locations and accumulated 2097 trap-nights in a 60-day survey period during the winter season of 2010-2011. In addition, we walked 136 km over 81 different line transects using distance sampling to estimate prey density. We photographed 31 individual tigers, 28 individual leopards and 25 other mammalian species. Spatial capture-recapture methods resulted in lower density estimates for tigers, ranging from 2.3 to 2.9 tigers per 100 km2 , than for leopards, which ranged from 3.3 to 5.1 leopards per 100 km2 . In addition, leopard densities were higher in the core of the Churia compared to surrounding areas. We estimated 62.7 prey animals per 100 km2 with forest ungulate prey (sambar, chital, barking deer and wild pig), accounting for 47% of the total. Based on prey availability, Churia habitat within CNP could potentially support 5.86 tigers per 100 km2 but our density estimates were lower, perhaps indicating that the tiger population is below carrying capacity. Our results demonstrate that Churia habitat should not be ignored in conservation initiatives, but rather management efforts should focus on reducing human disturbance to support higher predator numbers.