Individual Firefighters Research Articles

Developing risk profiling for firefighters: Enhancing safety and performance

Firefighters encounter numerous complex and ever-changing hazards when carrying out emergency response activities, necessitating the development of effective risk profiling methods to enhance both their safety and operational efficiency. This study outlines a comprehensive approach to constructing risk profiles tailored specifically for firefighters, integrating various methodologies to create a robust and adaptable framework. The methods used incorporating historical incident data, environmental variables, and individual firefighter characteristics to identify and assess potential risks. Additionally, the risk profiling framework include Psychosocial risk factors are also considered, allowing for a holistic understanding of the human element in firefighting risk assessment. By developing risk profiles to the specific needs and characteristics of firefighters, this method aims to significantly improve their safety, ability to make decisions, and overall operational efficiency in the demanding and ever-changing setting of emergency response situations.This article discussed methods•To identify safety cultures using questionnaires•To analyse risk from incident reports using content analysis•To verify and validate risk using thematic analysis from Focus Group Discussion

Individual responses to the implementation of mandatory fitness testing within a fire department

ObjectivesTo examine the effects of implementing a consequential fitness assessment (pull-ups, curl-ups, push-ups, 3 min step test) in a fire department on an individual level.MethodsWe used a repeated-measures design to...

Evaluating the performance of surfactant and charcoal-based cleaning products to effectively remove PAHs from firefighter gear

Firefighters regularly respond to fire scenes where a mixture of chemicals including volatile, semi-volatile, and nonvolatile compounds are present in smoke and soot. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are common contaminants at fire scenes that may be deposited on the gear and the individual firefighter. Laundering is a common approach for the decontamination of contaminated gear. Surfactants are widely used by firefighters during laundering to remove PAHs as they are generally non-toxic and biodegradable. The removal of PAHs depends on the surfactant types, chemistries, and concentrations. This study evaluated the effect of surfactant concentrations to remove persistent contaminants like PAHs from turnout gear. The cleaning performance of different types of surfactants was also evaluated. Outer shell fabrics were contaminated with a standard mixture of 16 PAH compounds, and two commercial detergents were used at different concentrations. Additionally, the cleaning efficacy of eight commercially available regular and charcoal-based cleaning products was also determined against PAHs at a single surfactant concentration. For the decontamination method, a bench-scale washing procedure simulating the National Fire Protection Assocation 1851 laundering process was used. The removal efficacy of high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs were found to be lower compared to the low molecular weight PAHs for any type or any concentration of detergent. Our research also showed that the recommended surfactant concentrations provided by detergent manufacturers can be ineffective at removing the HMW PAHs from heavily contaminated fabric. With 1 mL of detergent in a 100-mL bath, which is multiple times higher than recommended amount, only 40% of HMW PAHs were removed. The cleaning efficacy can be increased to above 90% by using higher concentrations of detergents. This research shows that firefighters may need to use a higher concentration of detergent than the recommended amount to effectively remove PAHs from the gear. All the regular and charcoal-based detergents were able to remove PAHs effectively from contaminated fabrics when a higher concentration of detergent was used.

Development of a job-exposure matrix (JEM) for exposure to smoke particle mass among firefighters of the Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY)

ObjectivesA refined job exposure matrix (JEM) based on incident types and severities and response characteristics was developed for firefighters to estimate quantities of smoke particles emitted during structural and non-structural...

"A sight you'll never forget". Why firefighters experience certain incidents as critical and the impact of such incidents on individual firefighters and fire crews

"A sight you'll never forget". Why firefighters experience certain incidents as critical and the impact of such incidents on individual firefighters and fire crews

"A sight you'll never forget". Why firefighters experience certain incidents as critical and the impact of such incidents on individual firefighters and fire crews

"A sight you'll never forget". Why firefighters experience certain incidents as critical and the impact of such incidents on individual firefighters and fire crews

Development of muscle mass and body fat reference curves for white male UK firefighters.

This study describes the development of the world's first suite of firefighter body composition centile reference curves which can be used as both academic research tools and clinical references, to plot and track individual firefighter skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and fat mass (FM) measurements against the representative reference sample. The body composition of 497 white male London (England) firefighters was measured by anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance analysis. Smoothed centile curves were then generated for skeletal muscle mass index (SMMI), fat mass index (FMI), body fat percentage (BF%) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Between 48 and 62years, firefighter SMMI is greater than the UK white male age-matched general population by a mean of 0.35 units, although SMMI declines 0.006 units/years faster in firefighters between these ages. This is estimated to translate to a mean decline of approximately 0.6% of absolute SMM per year. Between 40 and 49years, firefighter FMI is 0.1 units greater than the UK white male age-matched general population, which becomes identical (7 units) between 50 and 54years. At the 50th centile, WHtR exceeds 0.5 by 39years reaching 0.55 at 62years. This contrasts with FMI which remains stable from 47years. Firefighters in this study possess greater FM and SMM compared with the UK general population. SMM appears to decline rapidly within older age ranges. These references offer a novel improvement upon the limitations of BMI and BF% for the benefit of an occupational group at elevated risk of cardiovascular disease.

A predictive decision-aid device to warn firefighters of catastrophic temperature increases using an AI-based time-series algorithm

An experimental firefighter-wearable device exploiting an Artificial Intelligence (AI) based algorithm is described, with the purpose of pre-warning wearers of dangerous rates of temperature rise in the environment, for example ahead of flashover. This exploits a compact embedded Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with a second stage classifier, reading temperature data from the in-built thermocouple, to produce a 30 s output window of predicted temperatures, used to inform pre/full alarm states and a series of audible/visual warnings.The algorithm and device have been tested in two controlled fire behaviour training environments in both the UK and US during multiple flashovers, demonstrating the integrity of the predictions and subsequent alarm triggering in this environment, specifically, triggering an alarm 27 s ahead of flashover for a unit positioned at firefighter crouching height (0.8 m). These experiments included testing on a reference mannequin to explore the potential impact of the boundary effect on temperature measurements close to a tunic, as well as the impact of simulated firefighter movement on the output predictions and therefore alarm states.The results from subsequent testing of the devices in realistic firefighting conditions by firefighter instructors demonstrate the dynamic response of the algorithm to changing conditions equivalent to a serious domestic building fire, including the potential benefit of the precautionary ‘pre-alarm’.Finally, a snapshot of results from extended trials in an uncontrolled training environment with multiple firefighters is discussed, including early developments towards a potential concept of use including cloud-based aggregation of individual firefighter temperature exposure data.

Evaluation of silicone-based wristbands as passive sampling systems using PAHs as an exposure proxy for carcinogen monitoring in firefighters: Evidence from the firefighter cancer initiative

Compared to the general population, firefighters are known to sustain greater levels of exposure to hazardous compounds, despite their personal protective equipment, also known as turnout gear. Among the most significant toxins that firefighters are chronically exposed to are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Additionally, firefighters have also been noted to exhibit an increased incidence of certain types of cancer. Considering a probable link between exposure to PAHs and increased rates of cancer in the fire service, we aim to document ambient chemical concentrations in the firefighter work environment. Our strategy involves the use of silicone-based wristbands that have the capacity to passively sorb PAHs. To determine if wristbands can serve as an effective chemical monitoring device for the fire service, silicone wristbands were pilot-tested as personal sampling devices for work environment risk monitoring in active-duty firefighters. Recovered wristbands underwent multiple extraction steps, followed by GC-MS analysis to demonstrate their efficacy in monitoring PAHs in the firefighter environment. Initial findings from all wristband samples taken from firefighters showed multiple exposures to various PAHs of concern for the health of the firefighters when in a fire environment. In addition to PAH monitoring, we examined known and potential sources of PAH contamination in their work environment. To that end, profiles of elevated PAH concentrations were documented at various fire stations throughout South Florida, for individual firefighters both during station duties and active fire response.

Discovery of firefighter chemical exposures using military-style silicone dog tags

Occupational chemical hazards in the fire service are hypothesized to play a role in increased cancer risk, and reliable sampling technologies are necessary for conducting firefighter chemical exposure assessments. This study presents the military-style dog tag as a new configuration of silicone passive sampling device to sample individual firefighters’ exposures at one high and one low fire call volume department in the Kansas City, Missouri metropolitan area. The recruited firefighters (n = 56) wore separate dog tags to assess on– and off-duty exposures (ndogtags = 110), for a total of 30 24 h shifts. Using a 63 PAH method (GC–MS/MS), the tags detected 45 unique PAHs, of which 18 have not been previously reported as firefighting exposures. PAH concentrations were higher for on– compared to off-duty tags (0.25 < Cohen’s d ≤ 0.80) and for the high compared to the low fire call volume department (0.25 ≤ d < 0.70). Using a 1530 analyte screening method (GC–MS), di-n-butyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, guaiacol, and DEET were commonly detected analytes. The number of fire attacks a firefighter participated in was more strongly correlated with PAH concentrations than firefighter rank or years in the fire service. This suggested that quantitative data should be employed for firefighter exposure assessments, rather than surrogate measures. Because several detected analytes are listed as possible carcinogens, future firefighter exposure studies should consider evaluating complex mixtures to assess individual health risks.

Coping and Its Relation to PTSD in Greek Firefighters.

Firefighters are exposed continuously to intense stress situations and traumatic incidents, and are at high risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Coping mechanisms and behaviors have been examined as factors contributing to PTSD. The strategies that may be used to cope with stress and/or trauma differ between individuals and also between different professions and traumatic events (). Although there is a vast literature on stress and coping processes that exists, very few studies investigated the way individual firefighters cope with trauma. Among several questionnaires that have been used to examine the effects of different types of coping mechanisms after traumatic incidents is the Albert Einstein College of Medicine-Coping Style Questionnaire (AECOM-CSQ; ). In August 2007, large areas in the Peloponnese, Greece, were devastated by wildfires. One month after the event, experienced researchers visited the affected area to provide psychological support and to investigate the psychosocial consequences among the local professional firefighters. One hundred two firefighters that were on duty for the entire period of firefighting (several days) were interviewed using several questionnaires, among them the AECOM-CSQ. Our hypothesis was that firefighters who presented with PTSD would be more inclined toward engaging in avoidance coping mechanisms. A total of 18.6% of the firefighters were found to have PTSD according to ICD-10 criteria. Logistic regression showed that firefighters using the coping mechanisms of minimization and blame were associated with the greater likelihood of PTSD. It seems that specific coping mechanisms used by firefighters immediately after the traumatic event might contribute to the development of PTSD.

Cumulative Firefighter Exposure to Multiple Toxins Emitted During Prescribed Burns in Australia

Firefighters in the line of duty are exposed to many hazardous air toxics released from burning vegetation and other materials that may cause severe health risks. Current literature does not consider complex mixtures and cumulative impacts of these air toxics when assessing firefighter exposure risk. This study aims to determine if cumulative exposure to mixtures of air toxics will put firefighters at risk in the context of current firefighter exposure regulations. This was tested using CO exposure and air toxics data collected during prescribed burns. Personal CO monitors were deployed to 122 firefighters at 31 prescribed burns across Australian temperate forests. CO concentrations were used to determine equivalent exposures for air toxics using their emission ratio, which were then used to calculate cumulative exposure. Average personal monitor CO exposure was 9.2 ppm across all burns, with 1-min maximum ranging between 0.3 and 703 ppm. Work safe Australia exposure standards were exceeded for 6 firefighters out of 122. Five individual firefighters had average cumulative exposures exceeding 100% exposure limit. Six toxicological classes were identified to be the most hazardous, causing eye disorders, upper and lower respiratory disorders, skin disorders and cancer. Across these classes, three toxins contributed significantly to the cumulative exposure; respirable particles (< 3 μm), formaldehyde and acrolein. Using the cumulative exposure methodology as described here and a reduction in the CO exposure standards to account for the numerous air toxics emitted during a fire would supply decision makers with a tool to better identify exposure risks.

Spine loading during laboratory-simulated fireground operations — inter-individual variation and method of load quantification

Spine loading data are needed to design low-back health-preserving ergonomic interventions for firefighters. Study objectives were to quantify spine loads during simulated fireground operations using simple (polynomial) and advanced (EMG-assisted musculoskeletal model) methods and to describe the variation in spine loads between performers (N = 20). Spine compression forces differed by as much as 5.5 times bodyweight between individuals performing identical tasks. Anteroposterior and mediolateral shear forces varied by as much 3.2 and 2.1 times bodyweight between individuals performing the same tasks, respectively. Large variations in spine load magnitudes were documented regardless of whether simple or advanced quantification methods were used. Results suggest that low-back loading demands on the fireground would vary widely depending on the physical characteristics of individual firefighters, movement strategies employed, and tasks performed. Thus, personalised ergonomic interventions are warranted to regulate spine loading and load tolerance in firefighters. Practitioner summary: Even when performing the same work, the associated spine loading demands will vary widely across people due to differences in their body sizes, shapes, and movement strategies. Therefore, personalised interventions are needed to regulate spine loading and load tolerance in workers (e.g. obesity prevention, physical capacity-building exercise, and movement [re]training).

Training Implications for Firefighters through objective Measurement of the Physiological Demands of Firefighter Job Tasks

The purpose of this study was to describe the direct measurement of physiological demands of firefighter job tasks within a modified Candidate Physical Abilities Test (CPAT) broken out by specific task. Twenty male firefighters from a large municipal fire department in the southwest United States participated in the study. To directly measure cardiorespiratory demands of firefighting job tasks, the study incorporated the measurement of individual firefighter physiological demands on four different physiological variables (VO2, Heart Rate-HR, Respiratory Exchange Ratio-RER, Energy Expenditure per Minute-EEM).

Targeted GC-MS analysis of firefighters’ exhaled breath: Exploring biomarker response at the individual level

Biomarker measurements can provide unambiguous evidence of environmental exposures as well as the resultant biological responses. Firefighters have a high rate of occupational cancer incidence, which has been proposed to be linked in part to their increased environmental exposure to byproducts of combustion and contaminants produced during fire responses. In this article, the uptake and elimination of targeted volatile organic compounds were investigated by collecting the exhaled breath of firefighters on sorbent tubes before and after controlled structure burns and analyzing samples using automated thermal desorption-gas chromatography (ATD-GC/MS). Volatile organic compounds exposure was assessed by grouping the data according to firefighting job positions as well as visualizing the data at the level of the individual firefighter to determine which individuals had expected exposure responses. When data were assessed at the group level, benzene concentrations were found to be elevated post-exposure in both fire attack, victim search, and outside ventilation firefighting positions. However, the results of the data analysis at the individual level indicate that certain firefighters may be more susceptible to post-exposure volatile organic compounds increases than others, and this should be considered when assessing the effectiveness of firefighting protective gear. Although this work focuses on firefighting activity, the results can be translated to potential human health and ecological effects from building and forest fires.

Mortality and cancer incidence among female Australian firefighters

ObjectivesTo investigate the mortality and cancer incidence of female firefighters, a group where there are limited published findings.MethodsParticipating fire agencies supplied records of individual firefighters including the number and type...

Safe separation distance score: a new metric for evaluating wildland firefighter safety zones using lidar

ABSTRACTSafety zones are areas where firefighters can retreat to in order to avoid bodily harm when threatened by burnover or entrapment from wildland fire. At present, safety zones are primarily designated by firefighting personnel as part of daily fire management activities. Though critical to safety zone assessment, the effectiveness of this approach is inherently limited by the individual firefighter’s or crew boss’s ability to accurately and consistently interpret vegetation conditions, topography, and spatial characteristics of potential safety zones (e.g. area and geometry of a forest clearing). In order to facilitate the safety zone identification and characterization process, this study introduces a new metric for safety zone evaluation: the Safe Separation Distance Score (SSDS). The SSDS is a numerical representation of the relative suitability of a given area as a safety zone according to its size, geometry, and surrounding vegetation height. This paper describes an algorithm for calculating pixel-based and polygon-based SSDS from lidar data. SSDS is calculated for every potential safety zone within a lidar dataset covering Tahoe National Forest, California, USA. A total of 2367 potential safety zones with an SSDS ≥1 were mapped, representing areas that are suitable for fires burning in low wind and low slope conditions. The highest SSDS calculated within the study area was 9.65, a score that represents suitability in the highest wind-steepest slope conditions. Potential safety zones were clustered in space, with areas in the northern and eastern portions of the National Forest containing an abundance of safety zones while areas to the south and west were completely devoid of them. SSDS can be calculated for potential safety zones in advance of firefighting, and can allow firefighters to carefully compare and select safety zones based on their location, terrain, and wind conditions. This technique shows promise as a standard method for objectively identifying and ranking safety zones on a spatial basis.

Mortality and cancer incidence in a cohort of male paid Australian firefighters

ObjectivesTo investigate mortality and cancer incidence of paid male Australian firefighters and of subgroups of firefighters by era of first employment, duration of employment and number and type of incidents...

Innovative strategy to produce disaster map according to CDM life cycle in South Korea

The comprehensive disaster management cycle is designed to help emergency managers prepare for and respond to a disaster as four phases of disaster: (1) mitigation; (2) preparedness; (3) response; and (4) recovery. Each phase has particular needs, requires distinct tools, strategies, and resources and faces different challenges. This study aims to propose innovative strategy required to produce disaster maps according to four phases of disaster management. In the prevention stage, a study of a prediction map is conducted, and continuous research should be conducted with a method that can increase the rate of prediction through verifying reliability. In the preparedness stage, a preparedness map is needed, through which the people can grasp shelter etc. In the response stage, a user-centered fire-fighting administrative map is needed so that individual fire-fighters can immediately utilize it in their response to a disaster. Lastly, in the recovery stage, a recovery project is carried out to prevent another recurrence of a disaster in advance, and this project is urgently carried out, so in the stage of ‘recovery project evaluation,’ a disaster map including detailed space information should be presented.

Physical Fitness Characteristics of Rural Firefighters on the Northern Coast of California

Limited research has been conducted on the health-related physical fitness level of rural firefighters on the northern coast of California. The geographic isolation of rural firefighters creates unique challenges, including staffing shortages placing individual firefighters under unusual physiological stress. PURPOSE:The purpose of this study was to examine the health-related physical fitness status of rural firefighters. METHODS:20 male firefighters (mean±sd, age = 32±7 yr, height = 180±5 cm, body mass = 96±16 kg, fire service = 9±7 yr) on the northern coast of California performed body composition, strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity tests. Data were compared with age-based normative data. RESULTS:Fitness testing revealed that rural firefighters ranked above average on tests of upper body muscular strength (bench press) and aerobic capacity (VO2max) and average on tests of body composition (% fat) and flexibility (sit-and-reach). (Table 1) CONCLUSIONS:Exercise programs for firefighters should focus on improving flexibility and body composition, while maintaining muscular strength and aerobic fitness to meet the demands of firefighting.Table 1: Health-related physical fitness characteristics of rural firefighters