Individual Differences In Strategy Use Research Articles

A unified model of arithmetic with whole numbers, fractions, and decimals.

This article describes UMA (Unified Model of Arithmetic), a theory of children's arithmetic implemented as a computational model. UMA builds on FARRA (Fraction Arithmetic Reflects Rules and Associations; Braithwaite et al., 2017), a model of children's fraction arithmetic. Whereas FARRA-like all previous models of arithmetic-focused on arithmetic with only one type of number, UMA simulates arithmetic with whole numbers, fractions, and decimals. The model was trained on arithmetic problems from the first to sixth grade volumes of a math textbook series; its performance on tests administered at the end of each grade was compared to the performance of children in prior empirical research. In whole number arithmetic (Study 1), fraction arithmetic (Study 2), and decimal arithmetic (Study 3), UMA displayed types of errors, effects of problem features on error rates, and individual differences in strategy use that resembled those documented in the previous studies of children. Further, UMA generated correlations between individual differences in basic and advanced arithmetic skills similar to those observed in longitudinal studies of arithmetic development (Study 4). The results support UMA's main theoretical assumptions regarding arithmetic development: (a) most errors reflect small deviations from standard procedures via two mechanisms, overgeneralization and omission; (b) between-problem variations in error rates reflect effects of intrinsic difficulty and differential amounts of practice; and (c) individual differences in strategy use reflect underlying variation in parameters governing learning and decision making. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Mental imagery and visual working memory abilities appear to be unrelated in childhood: Evidence for individual differences in strategy use

We addressed two research gaps related to mental imagery (MI) in children. First, research has investigated the development of MI employing a component model (image generation, image maintenance, mental rotation, image scanning), however knowledge of how components develop and their associations throughout childhood (age 6 to 11 years) is incomplete. Second, despite positive associations in adults, the relationship between MI and visual working memory (VWM) has not been investigated in children. Using a novel MI task battery sensitive to the visual precision of MI, we found evidence for a separable-component model of MI in children, with some components becoming integrated in adulthood. Contrary to expectations, there were no significant associations between components of MI and VWM in either childhood or in adults. Our findings extend current understanding of development of MI and highlight the importance of considering individual differences in strategy-use when establishing the relationship between MI and VWM.

Reasoning strategy vs cognitive capacity as predictors of individual differences in reasoning performance

The dual strategy model posits that reasoners rely on two information processing strategies when making inferences: The statistical strategy generates a rapid probabilistic estimate based on associative access to a wide array of information, and the counterexample strategy uses a more focused representation allowing for a search for potential counterexamples. In this paper, we focused on individual differences in strategy use as a predictor of performance on four reasoning tasks: Belief bias, base rate neglect, conjunction fallacy, and denominator neglect. Predictions from the strategy use model were contrasted with predictions from Dual Process Theories, which suggest that individual differences in performance reflect variations in cognitive ability. In each of four studies, a large number (N ≈ 200) completed one of the above reasoning tasks, a strategy use diagnostic questionnaire, and measures of IQ, cognitive reflection, and numeracy. In three of four studies, individual differences in strategy use predicted differences in reasoning performance when the effects of the other variables were eliminated. Bayesian analysis indicated that none of the individual differences measures predicted a significant portion of variance on the conjunction fallacy task, and that strategy use was a strong predictor on the remaining three tasks. This research suggests that the type of strategy that is adopted paves a road to successful reasoning that is independent of cognitive capacity.

Individual differences in strategy use and performance during fault diagnosis

BackgroundResearch on causal reasoning often uses group-level data analyses that downplay individual differences and simple reasoning problems that are unrepresentative of everyday reasoning. In three empirical studies, we used an individual differences approach to investigate the cognitive processes people used in fault diagnosis, which is a complex diagnostic reasoning task. After first showing how high-level fault diagnosis strategies can be composed of simpler causal inferences, we discussed how two of these strategies—elimination and inference to the best explanation (IBE)—allow normative performance, which minimizes the number of diagnostic tests, whereas backtracking strategies are less efficient. We then investigated whether the use of normative strategies was infrequent and associated with greater fluid intelligence and positive thinking dispositions and whether normative strategies used slow, analytic processing while non-normative strategies used fast, heuristic processing.ResultsAcross three studies and 279 participants, uses of elimination and IBE were infrequent, and most participants used inefficient backtracking strategies. Fluid intelligence positively predicted elimination and IBE use but not backtracking use. Positive thinking dispositions predicted avoidance of backtracking. After classifying participants into groups that consistently used elimination, IBE, and backtracking, we found that participants who used elimination and IBE made fewer, but slower, diagnostic tests compared to backtracking users.ConclusionsParticipants’ fault diagnosis performance showed wide individual differences. Use of normative strategies was predicted by greater fluid intelligence and more open-minded and engaged thinking dispositions. Elimination and IBE users made the slow, efficient responses typical of analytic processing. Backtracking users made the fast, inefficient responses suggestive of heuristic processing.

Reasoning strategies predict use of very fast logical reasoning.

The dual strategy model proposes that people use one of two potential ways of processing information when making inferences. The statistical strategy generates a rapid probabilistic estimate based on associative access to a wide array of information, while the counterexample strategy uses a more focused representation, allowing for a search for potential counterexamples. In the following studies, we explore the hypothesis that individual differences in strategy use are related to the ability to make rapid intuitive logical judgments. In Study 1, we show that this is the case for rapid judgments requiring a distinction between simple logical form and for a novel form of judgment, the ability to identify inferences that are not linked to their premises (non sequiturs). In Study 2, we show that strategy use is related to the ability to make the kinds of rapid logical judgments previously examined over and above contributions of working memory capacity. Study 3 shows that strategy use explains individual variability in rapid logical responding with belief-biased inferences over and above the contribution of IQ. The results of Studies 2 and 3 indicate that under severe time constraint cognitive capacity is a very poor predictor of reasoning, while strategy use becomes a stronger predictor. These results extend the notion that people can make rapid intuitive "logical" judgments while highlighting the importance of strategy use as a key individual difference variable.

Individual and age differences in block-by-block dynamics of category learning strategies.

The present experiment examined individual and age differences in the dynamics of category learning strategies. Participants learned categories determined by a disjunctive rule with relational features through a feedback training procedure. During training, participants responded to strategy probes following each block to provide online assessment of the extent to which rule- and exemplar-based strategies were used throughout the training period. We introduced this measure as an alternative to model-based approaches to assessing individual differences in strategy use during training. Following training, participants classified ambiguous transfer objects that were assumed to distinguish between earlier use of rule- and exemplar-based learning strategies. We included this measure to obtain a relatively objective index of strategy use during training. Next, participants provided global ratings of their use of rule- and exemplar-based strategies during training. Results showed that strategy preferences expressed on the final training block predicted categorisation of ambiguous transfer objects better than global strategy reports. In addition, we utilised the block-by-block strategy reports to investigate the dynamics of learners' strategy preferences over the course of training. The findings revealed greater fluidity in strategy preferences for both younger and older adults than has been previously documented in the category learning literature. The novel block-by-block strategy reports in conjunction with the transfer-based approach allowed for a more nuanced examination of individual and age differences in strategy use and categorisation performance.

Who resists belief-biased inferences? The role of individual differences in reasoning strategies, working memory, and attentional focus.

A common explanation for individual differences in the ability to draw rule-based inferences, when a putative conclusion suggests a competing belief-based inference, is that the ability to do so depends on working memory capacity. In the following studies, we examined the hypothesis that the ability to draw rule-based inferences in belief bias tasks can also be explained by individual differences in reasoning strategies and in the related attentional focus. The dual-strategy model differentiates counterexample and statistical strategies that involve different information-processing styles. In the first study (N = 139), participants completed a working memory task (operation span), a strategy diagnostic questionnaire, and a belief bias task. The results showed that individual differences in strategy use predicted performance in the belief bias problems over and above any effects of working memory capacity, with counterexample reasoners producing rule-based inferences more often than statistical reasoners. In the second study (N = 196), an eye-tracking methodology was used as a process-tracing technique to investigate attentional differences between the two strategies. On problems showing a conflict between rule-based and belief-based information, counterexample reasoners demonstrated longer fixation times on the premises than did statistical reasoners, thus providing direct evidence that individual differences in strategy use reflect different processing styles. These results clearly indicate that individual differences in strategy use are an important determinant of the way that people make inferences when rule-based and belief-based cues are both present.

Working memory capacity and strategy use on the RAPM

Despite many studies showing that high working memory capacity (WMC) individuals perform better on analytic reasoning and problem-solving tasks, the cognitive mechanisms underlying these relationships are still under debate. The present work explored the link between WMC and performance on a popular test of fluid intelligence (gF), the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM; Raven, Raven, & Court, 1998), with the goal of assessing whether strategies might play a mediating role in the WMC and gF relationship. Using think-aloud protocols to assess strategies, it was determined that individual differences in strategy use on the RAPM partially mediated the relationship between WMC and performance. In addition, evidence suggested that participants decreased their use of constructive matching strategies as item difficulty increased. Finally, think-aloud protocols provided evidence for a third, hybrid strategy: isolate-and-eliminate. This new strategy goes beyond constructive matching and response elimination, utilizing aspects of each.

Detecting Strategies in Developmental Psychology

Differential strategy use is a topic of intense investigation in developmental psychology. Questions under study are as follows: How do strategies change with age, how can individual differences in strategy use be explained, and which interventions promote shifts from suboptimal to optimal strategies? In order to detect such differential strategy use, developmental psychology currently relies on two approaches—the rule assessment methodology and latent class analysis—each having their own strengths and weaknesses. In order to optimize strategy detection, a new approach that combines the strengths of both existing methods and avoids their weaknesses was recently developed: model-based latent-mixture analysis using Bayesian inference. We performed a simulation study to test the ability of this new approach to detect differential strategy use. Next, we illustrate the benefits of this approach by a re-analysis of decision making data from 210 children and adolescents. We conclude that the new approach yields highly informative results, and provides an adequate account of the observed data. To facilitate the application of this new approach in other studies, we provide open access documented code, and a step-by-step tutorial of its usage.

Individual Differences in Strategy Use for L2 Lexical Inferencing: The Case of Learning Styles

This study aimed to examine the effect of the second language (L2) learners’ perceptual learning style preferences on their strategy use for lexical inferencing and the treatment effect from an explicit instructional program. Joy Reid’s (1995) Perceptual Learning Style Preferences (PLSP) Inventory, a lexical inferencing test, and a vocabulary strategy questionnaire were administered to 145 university students during a 15-week reading course. The results of a simple regression analysis showed that the tactilc students tended to use more lexical inferencing strategies than the others with different learning styles; and that the visual learners tended to use strategies less frequently, compared to the other counterparts. Further analysis of simple regression indicated that the individual learners benefited most from the treatment effect, followed by the visual learners. The findings can be of significance for teachers and the L2 learners to concern individual differences in L2 inferential strategy use.

The strong link between fluid intelligence and working memory cannot be explained away by strategy use

In order to evaluate recent claims that individual differences in strategy use (i.e., using either constructive matching or response elimination to solve a gf problem) can explain away, or at least significantly weaken, the strong relationship between working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (gf), in two large-sample studies we applied multiple measures of WMC, gf, and strategy use, and tested if the mediation of strategy use affected the WMC-gf relationship. We observed no significant drop in the WMC-gf link due to mediation, thus refuting the alleged role of strategy use in the involvement of working memory processes in fluid reasoning. Moreover, our results suggest that it is the significant correlation of both strategy use and cognitive style with WMC which is the driving force for their moderate correlation with gf.

Additional evidence for a dual-strategy model of reasoning: Probabilistic reasoning is more invariant than reasoning about logical validity.

One of the major debates concerning the nature of inferential reasoning is between counterexample-based strategies such as mental model theory and the statistical strategies underlying probabilistic models. The dual-strategy model proposed by Verschueren, Schaeken, and d'Ydewalle (2005a, 2005b) suggests that people might have access to both kinds of strategies. One of the postulates of this approach is that statistical strategies correspond to low-cost, intuitive modes of evaluation, whereas counterexample strategies are higher-cost and more variable in use. We examined this hypothesis by using a deductive-updating paradigm. The results of Study 1 showed that individual differences in strategy use predict different levels of deductive updating on inferences about logical validity. Study 2 demonstrated no such variation when explicitly probabilistic inferences were examined. Study 3 showed that presenting updating problems with probabilistic inferences modified performance on subsequent problems using logical validity, whereas the opposite was not true. These results provide clear evidence that the processes used to make probabilistic inferences are less subject to variation than those used to make inferences of logical validity.

Strategies influence neural activity for feedback learning across child and adolescent development

Learning from feedback is an important aspect of executive functioning that shows profound improvements during childhood and adolescence. This is accompanied by neural changes in the feedback-learning network, which includes pre-supplementary motor area (pre- SMA)/anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), superior parietal cortex (SPC), and the basal ganglia. However, there can be considerable differences within age ranges in performance that are ascribed to differences in strategy use. This is problematic for traditional approaches of analyzing developmental data, in which age groups are assumed to be homogenous in strategy use. In this study, we used latent variable models to investigate if underlying strategy groups could be detected for a feedback-learning task and whether there were differences in neural activation patterns between strategies. In a sample of 268 participants between ages 8 to 25 years, we observed four underlying strategy groups, which were cut across age groups and varied in the optimality of executive functioning. These strategy groups also differed in neural activity during learning; especially the most optimal performing group showed more activity in DLPFC, SPC and pre-SMA/ACC compared to the other groups. However, age differences remained an important contributor to neural activation, even when correcting for strategy. These findings contribute to the debate of age versus performance predictors of neural development, and highlight the importance of studying individual differences in strategy use when studying development.

Is memory search governed by universal principles or idiosyncratic strategies?

Laboratory paradigms have provided an empirical foundation for much of psychological science. Some have argued, however, that such paradigms are highly susceptible to idiosyncratic strategies and that many findings do not reflect fundamental cognitive principles but are instead artifacts of averaging across participants who employ different strategies. We developed a set of techniques to rigorously test the extent to which average data are distorted by such strategy differences and applied these techniques to free recall data from the Penn Electrophysiology of Encoding and Retrieval Study. Recall initiation showed evidence of subgroups: The majority of participants initiated recall from the last item in the list, but one subgroup showed elevated initiation probabilities for items 2 to 4 positions back from the end of the list, and another showed elevated probabilities for the beginning of the list. By contrast, serial position curves and temporal and semantic clustering functions were remarkably consistent, with almost every participant exhibiting a recognizable version of the average function, suggesting that these functions reflect fundamental principles of the memory system. The approach taken here can serve as a model for evaluating the extent to which other laboratory paradigms are influenced by individual differences in strategy use.

More evidence for a dual-process model of conditional reasoning

Many studies have shown that the deductive inferences that people make have global properties that reflect the statistical information implicit in the premises. This suggests that such reasoning can be explained by a single, underlying probabilistic model. In contrast, the dual process model of conditional reasoning (Verschueren, Schaeken, & d'Ydewalle, 2005b) proposes that people can use either a logical, counterexample-based strategy or a probabilistic one. In two studies, we presented reasoners with sequences of affirmation-of-the-consequent inferences that differed with respect to the statistical properties of the premises, either explicitly or implicitly. As predicted by the dual-process model, an analysis of individual response patterns showed the presence of two distinct strategies, with use of the counterexample strategy being associated with higher levels of abstract-reasoning competence. Use of the counterexample strategy was facilitated by the explicit presentation of counterexample information. In a further study, we then examined explicitly probabilistic inferences. This study showed that although most reasoners made statistically appropriate inferences, the ability to make more-accurate inferences was associated with higher levels of abstract reasoning competence. These results show that deductive inferential reasoning cannot be explained by a single, unitary process and that any analysis of reasoning must consider individual differences in strategy use.

日本語版リーディングスパンテストにおける方略利用の個人差

Working memory is a system for processing and storing information. The Reading Span Test (RST), developed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980), is well-known for assessing individual difference in working memory. In the present investigation, we used the Japanese version of the RST (Osaka, 2002) and analyzed individual differences in strategy use from the viewpoint of strategy type (rehearsal, chaining, word-image, scene-image, and initial letter) and frequency of use (used in almost all trials, in half the trials, or not used). Data from the participants (N = 132) were assigned to groups according to the scores, for the total number of words correctly recalled and the proportion correct. The results showed that the frequency of word-image strategy use differed significantly between high-scoring subjects (HSS) and low-scoring subjects (LSS). HSS mainly used word-image and chaining strategies, while LSS used rehearsal and chaining strategies. This indicates that HSS used both verbal and visual strategies, whereas LSS relied only on verbal strategies. The use of the word-image is important for effective retention of words in memory.

Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?

Previous studies, such as those by Kornell and Bjork (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14:219-224, 2007) and Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger (Memory, 17:471-479, 2009), have surveyed college students' use of various study strategies, including self-testing and rereading. These studies have documented that some students do use self-testing (but largely for monitoring memory) and rereading, but the researchers did not assess whether individual differences in strategy use were related to student achievement. Thus, we surveyed 324 undergraduates about their study habits as well as their college grade point average (GPA). Importantly, the survey included questions about self-testing, scheduling one's study, and a checklist of strategies commonly used by students or recommended by cognitive research. Use of self-testing and rereading were both positively associated with GPA. Scheduling of study time was also an important factor: Low performers were more likely to engage in late-night studying than were high performers; massing (vs. spacing) of study was associated with the use of fewer study strategies overall; and all students-but especially low performers-were driven by impending deadlines. Thus, self-testing, rereading, and scheduling of study play important roles in real-world student achievement.

Individual differences in strategy use on division problems: Mental versus written computation.

Individual differences in strategy use (choice and accuracy) were analyzed. A sample of 362 Grade 6 students solved complex division problems under 2 different conditions. In the choice condition students were allowed to use either a mental or a written strategy. In the subsequent no-choice condition, they were required to use a written strategy. Latent class analysis showed that there were 3 subgroups of students with respect to pattern of strategy choices: primarily using a written strategy (more girls than boys); primarily using a mental strategy (more boys than girls); and using a written strategy on more difficult items but a mental strategy on the easier ones (almost no weak mathematical achievers). Strategy accuracies were analyzed with explanatory item response theory modeling. A between-subjects comparison in the choice condition showed that written strategies were usually more accurate than mental strategies, especially for the weak achievers. A within-subject comparison showed that the performance of students who used mental calculation on a particular item in the choice condition improved if they were required to use a written strategy in the no-choice condition.

Predictors of multitasking performance in a synthetic work paradigm

AbstractThis study investigated determinants of success in a ‘synthetic work’ task designed to reflect the requirement for multitasking that is common to many occupations. Participants were administered tests of working memory capacity (WMC) and processing speed (PS), and they reported experience with videogames, a type of activity presumed to involve multitasking. Results revealed that WMC was a strong predictor of multitasking in a ‘non‐emergency’ condition when the pace of the tasks was relatively slow, whereas PS was a weaker predictor. Additionally, there was evidence for the incremental validity of videogame experience (VGE), consistent with the possibility that multitasking is supported by a general, trainable skill. Finally, individual differences in strategy use accounted for a large proportion of the variance in multitasking, above and beyond other predictor variables, and WMC predicted use of an effective strategy. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hypermedia reading strategies employed by advanced learners of English

Abstract This study investigated the strategies used by advanced learners of English while reading a hypermedia document in order to determine whether they are essentially different from those reading strategies reported in the literature for printed texts. Moreover, the role of prior knowledge about the topic was explored in relation to strategy use. Data were collected from 10 advanced learners of English through think-aloud protocols. The strategies that emerged from the data were compared with those reported by Anderson [Anderson, N.J., 1991. Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. The Modern Language Journal 75, 460–472] for reading printed texts. Moreover, the strategies used by high prior knowledge and low prior knowledge participants were compared. Results indicate that processing strategies used by advanced learners of English in hypermedia reading are not essentially different from those reported for printed texts. However, certain processing strategies are not used in hypermedia reading. Moreover, strategies used in utilizing annotations and navigating through the text were identified. Finally, readers with high prior knowledge used certain cognitive and metacognitive strategies more frequently. However, low prior knowledge readers were able to compensate for their lack of prior knowledge by using annotations that provided background information about the topic and by navigating through the text in a coherent manner.