Individual Differences In Expectations Research Articles

Patients’ individual differences in implicit and explicit expectations from the therapist as a function of attachment orientation.

Patients' attachment orientation was found to be an important predictor of the process and outcome of psychotherapy. The present study is the first to examine whether patients' attachment orientation toward significant others predicts their implicit and explicit expectations from the therapist, and whether this effect is moderated by the extent to which the therapist has become an attachment figure. In two studies (N = 308), we developed measures of implicit (lexical decision task) and explicit expectations from therapist, and tested the presence of individual differences in expectations as a function of the patients' attachment orientation, early and late in treatment. Whereas individuals higher on attachment anxiety did not report having fewer positive expectations from therapist early in treatment, they showed lower accessibility of positive expectations when measured implicitly. As treatment progressed, the extent to which the therapist has become an attachment figure may mitigate the adverse effects of pretreatment attachment anxiety. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Expectations of Social Consequences Impact Anticipated Involvement in Health-Risk Behavior During Adolescence.

This study examined how individual differences in expectations of social consequences relate to individuals’ expected involvement in health-risk behaviors (HRBs). A total of 122 adolescents (aged 11–17) reported their expected involvement in a number of risk behaviors and whether or not they expect to be liked more or less by engaging in the behavior: the expected social benefit. Higher perceived social benefit was associated with higher anticipated involvement in said behavior. This relationship was stronger for adolescents who reported a higher degree of peer victimization, supporting the hypothesis that experiencing victimization increases the social value of peer interactions. Findings suggest that adolescents incorporate expectations of social consequences when making decisions regarding their involvement in HRBs.

Studying for autonomous reasons and having a promotion orientation: key predictors of individual differences in expectancies of success in English

This research used the expectancy-value theory to examine the extent to which three classes of motivation antecedents predicted secondary-school students’ expectancies of success in English. To this end, it investigated four general motivation orientations, two school-related achievement motives, as well as autonomous and controlled reasons undergirding motivation to study English. The results of exploratory structural equation modeling (N = 3615) show that studying English for autonomous reasons and having a motivation orientation that focuses on advancement and gains (i.e., a promotion orientation) were the strongest predictors of expectancies of success in this school domain. These results, which are consistent with recent findings examining expectancies of success in mathematics, have important implications for research, learning, and teaching.

Individual Differences in Trust in Autonomous Robots: Implications for Transparency

The introduction of increasingly intelligent and autonomous systems raises novel human factors challenges for human-machine teaming. People utilize differing mental models in understanding the functioning of complex systems that may be capable of social agency. Operators may perceive the machine as either a complex tool or a humanlike teammate. When the “advanced tool” mental model is adopted, operator trust may reflect individual differences in expectations of automation. By contrast, when the “teammate” mental model is activated, trust may depend on evaluative attitudes to robots. This article investigates predictors of trust in an autonomous robot detecting threat on either a physics-based or psychological basis. Distinct dimensions of physics-based and psychological trust are identified, corresponding to advanced tool and team mental models, respectively. Dispositional perceptions of automation, measured with the perfect automation schema scale, are associated with both aspects of trust. By contrast, the negative attitudes toward robots scale is specifically associated with lower psychological trust. The findings suggest that transparency information should be designed for compatibility with the operator's mental model in order to support accurate trust calibration and situation awareness. Transparency may be personalized to emphasize either the machine's data-analytic capabilities (advanced tool) or its humanlike social functioning (teammate).

The development and initial validation of the Fatigue Sensitivity Questionnaire

ABSTRACTCurrently, there is poor understanding of fatigue and the possible psychological conditions that may underlie chronic fatigue. Although substantial work has been directed to better clinically address fatigue, no work has explored individual differences in expectations or perceptions of the negative consequences associated with fatigue-related symptoms. The goals of this study were to (a) develop and (b) validate a measure of expectations or perceptions of the negative consequences associated with fatigue-related symptoms (e.g. fatigue sensitivity) across two independent samples (N = 1,827; 73.1% female; Mage = 21.68; SD = 4.54) of young adults. Results supported a 10-item measure of fatigue sensitivity, entitled the Fatigue Sensitivity Questionnaire (FSQ). The FSQ demonstrated unidimensionality, excellent internal consistency, and strong convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, the 10-item scale offers a single score that can be employed to measure fatigue sensitivity. Clinically, the FSQ may be a brief, informative, and easily disseminated measure in better understanding and capturing expectations or perceptions about the negative consequences of fatigue. As a research tool, the use of the FSQ may provide broader understanding of vulnerability factors that may influence fatigue-related health outcomes. Future research is needed to test the validity of the FSQ in other samples.

O ranom razvoju percepcije osobne kompetentnosti

This paper deals with the question of the early appearance of perception of self-competence, as well as the question of the causes of individual differences in expectations of self-com petenca. A survey of investigations which are trying to give answers to these questions is given. It is suggested that most probably man has got an innate need for competence, which satisfaction or non-satisfaction significantly contributes to the development of self-concept in very early childhood.

Individual Differences in Expectancies for Change in Depression: Associations with Goal Pursuit and Daily Experiences.

More optimistic expectations for change in patients entering treatment often predict more favorable outcomes. However, our understanding of the nature and function of those expectancies is limited. The current study tested the proposal that optimistic expectancies among patients seeking outpatient psychotherapy for major depressive disorder may be explained in part by having a more adaptive self-regulatory style. A sample of 56 adults (78.6% female; mean age 36.5) completed measures of expectancies, depressive symptoms, and aspects of self-regulation. Participants also completed a week of experience sampling using a cell phone system that signaled them 8 random times per day for 7 days. Results were largely consistent with hypotheses. Depressed participants with more optimistic expectancies had a stronger promotion goal orientation, higher goal re-engagement, and reported greater progress on their most important personal goals; daily positive affect and positive situational appraisals were also higher. Findings may suggest a possible self-regulatory mechanism underlying optimistic expectancies for change.

Rational regulation of learning dynamics by pupil-linked arousal systems

The ability to make inferences about the current state of a dynamic process requires ongoing assessments of the stability and reliability of data generated by that process. We found that these assessments, as defined by a normative model, were reflected in non–luminance–mediated changes in pupil diameter of human subjects performing a predictive–inference task. Brief changes in pupil diameter reflected assessed instabilities in a process that generated noisy data. Baseline pupil diameter reflected the reliability with which recent data indicated the current state of the data–generating process and individual differences in expectations about the rate of instabilities. Together these pupil metrics predicted the influence of new data on subsequent inferences. Moreover, a task– and luminance–independent manipulation of pupil diameter predictably altered the influence of new data. Thus, pupil–linked arousal systems can help regulate the influence of incoming data on existing beliefs in a dynamic environment.

Smoking outcome expectancies in young adult female smokers: Individual differences and associations with nicotine dependence in a genetically informative sample

Outcome expectancy is a central construct in models of addiction. Several outcome expectancies associated with smoking cigarettes have been identified, and studies suggest that individual differences in smoking expectancies are related to important aspects of tobacco use, including levels of smoking, nicotine dependence and smoking cessation. In the present study, we used a novel analytic method, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), to quantify smoking expectancies from a subset of items adapted from the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire (SCQ; Brandon and Baker, 1991) and SCQ-Adult (Copeland et al., 1995). In our sample of 1262 monozygotic and dizygotic young adult, female twins who were regular smokers, we quantified six smoking expectancy factors similar to those reported in previous studies. These included Negative Affect Reduction, Boredom Reduction, Weight Control, Taste Manipulation, Craving/Addiction and Stimulation-state Enhancement. We used genetic model-fitting to examine the extent to which individual differences in the expectancies were influenced by latent genetic, shared environmental and non-shared environmental factors. We also examined the validity of the expectancy factors by examining their associations with nicotine dependence (ND) before and after adjusting for comorbid diagnoses of drug dependence and alcohol use disorder. Results of the validity analysis indicated that all of the expectancies were associated with ND after covariate adjustment. Although we lacked the statistical power to distinguish between genetic and shared environmental sources of variance, our results suggest that smoking outcome expectancies aggregate in families, but the majority of variance in these expectancies is due to environmental factors specific to the individual.

Drinking expectancies and motives: a genetic study of young adult women

Constructs such as drinking expectancies (beliefs regarding the effects of alcohol) and motives (drinking alcohol to achieve a valued end) have been shown to be associated with various stages of alcohol use behaviors. However, little is known of the extent to which genetic and environmental influences contribute to individual differences in expectancies and motives. Using data from 3,656 young adult same-sex female twins, we examined the association between measures of drinking expectancies and motives and drinking behaviors. Using twin models, we estimated the extent to which genetic, shared and non-shared environmental factors influenced individual differences in expectancies and motives and also tested whether the extent of the genetic and environmental contributions on expectancies varied across abstainers and users of alcohol. Expectancies predicted initiation of alcohol use. Both motives and expectancies were associated with frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption and drinks-to-intoxication. There was no evidence for heritable influences on expectancies and enhancement motives, with familial similarity for these traits being due to shared environment. Heritable influences on social, coping and conformity motives ranged from 11% to 33%. When expectancies were stratified by alcohol use, significant heritable influences (31-39%) were found for cognitive-behavioral impairment and risk-taking/negative self-perception (RT/NSP) in abstainers only, while environmental influences contributed to familial variance for other measures of expectancies in alcohol users. Environmental influences (both familial and individual-specific) shape alcohol expectancies, while heritable influences may predispose to motives for drinking. Individual differences in expectancies are moderated by alcohol use, suggesting that sources of individual differences in expectancies may vary in drinkers versus abstainers.

Assertiveness expectancies: How hard people push depends on the consequences they predict.

The present article seeks to explain varying levels of assertiveness in interpersonal conflict and negotiations with assertiveness expectancies, idiosyncratic predictions people make about the social and instrumental consequences of assertive behavior. This account complements motivation-based models of assertiveness and competitiveness, suggesting that individuals may possess the same social values (e.g., concern for relationships) but show dramatically different assertiveness due to different assumptions about behavioral consequences. Results clarify the form of assertiveness expectancies, namely that most people assume increasing assertiveness can yield positive social and instrumental benefits up to a point, beyond which benefits decline. However, people vary in how assertive this perceived optimal point is. These individual differences in expectancies are linked in 4 studies to assertiveness, including self-reported assertiveness, rated behavioral preferences in assorted interpersonal conflict scenarios, partner ratings of participants' behavior in a face-to-face dyadic negotiation, and work colleague ratings of participants' assertiveness in the workplace. In each case, the link between expectancies and behavior remained after controlling for values. The results suggest a place for expectancies alongside values in psychological models of interpersonal assertiveness.

Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression.

The present paper describes promising research directions that emerged from a recent international conference on intoxication and aggression and from the scientific literature generally. In this overview, intoxicated aggression is seen as arising from an interactional process involving multiple contributing factors or causes. This model helps to define research directions that can further understanding and prevention. First, the societal/cultural framing of intoxication and aggression exerts a powerful influence on drinking behaviour and needs to be better understood. Another important area for research is the moderating role on alcohol-related aggression of personal factors such as predisposition to aggression and individual differences in expectations about alcohol and aggression. Research on the role of basic pharmacological effects of alcohol in increasing the likelihood of aggressive behaviour is also a critical aspect of understanding intoxicated aggression. Drinking contexts and environments play a considerable role in the relationship between intoxication and aggressive behaviour and need to be better understood. Another critical direction for future research is the study of intoxicated aggression as a process involving the interaction of the person, the situation and the effects of alcohol in natural and experimental settings. Finally, the paper highlights promising directions for research on interventions to prevent intoxicated aggression and violence.

Optimism is associated with mood, coping, and immune change in response to stress.

This study explored prospectively the effects of dispositional and situational optimism on mood (N = 90) and immune changes (N = 50) among law students in their first semester of study. Optimism was associated with better mood, higher numbers of helper T cells, and higher natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Avoidance coping partially accounted for the relationship between optimism and mood. Among the immune parameters, mood partially accounted for the optimism—helper T cell relationship, and perceived stress partially accounted for the optimism-cytotoxicity relationship. Individual differences in expectancies, appraisals, and mood may be important in understanding psychological and immune responses to stress.

Optimism is associated with mood, coping, and immune change in response to stress.

This study explored prospectively the effects of dispositional and situational optimism on mood (N = 90) and immune changes (N = 50) among law students in their first semester of study. Optimism was associated with better mood, higher numbers of helper T cells, and higher natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Avoidance coping partially accounted for the relationship between optimism and mood. Among the immune parameters, mood partially accounted for the optimism-helper T cell relationship, and perceived stress partially accounted for the optimism-cytotoxicity relationship. Individual differences in expectancies, appraisal, and mood may be important in understanding psychological and immune responses to stress.

The Driving Expectancy Questionnaire: development, psychometric assessment and predictive utility among young drink-drivers.

The primary objective of this research was to develop a Driving Expectancy Questionnaire (DEQ) that reflects a model in which a distinction is made between driving skill and driving style. The second objective was to study young drivers across the spectrum of drink-driving practices, from non-drivers to convicted drink-drivers, and to examine the relationship between their expectancies about driving and their drink-driving practices. The data from two separate samples, recruited through availability sampling, were used for the purpose of exploratory (n = 224; 122 men) and confirmatory factor analyses (n = 191; 101 men), respectively. The results revealed two factors of expectancies, driving skill and driving style, supporting the proposed model. The reliability, internal validity and relative independence of the factors were largely confirmed. Furthermore, criterion-related validity was demonstrated: expectancies about driving varied with drink-driving practices. Expectancies also contributed additional predictive power in relation to drink-driving practices beyond that afforded by several well-validated variables. The results are encouraging in terms of the ability of the DEQ to identify individual differences in expectancies about driving skill and driving style that are closely related to variations in drink-driving practices. The practical implications of these findings, as well as the potential research possibilities, are discussed.

Alcohol Expectancies and Behavioral and Emotional Responses to Placebo Versus Alcohol Administration

Forty normal drinking males were recruited for a study of "responses to alcohol." Following the completion of an alcohol use questionnaire that included measures of expectancies of alcohol effects, subjects were randomly assigned to either receive the actual 0.6 g/kg dose of ethanol to bring their peak blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to near 0.075 g/dl or to receive a placebo dose. Neither the subject nor the tester was aware of the condition to which the subject has been assigned. Prior to dosing and at repeated 1/2-hr intervals following dosing, subjects were tested on a battery of motor coordination, perceptual speed, reaction time, and mood measures. Significant alcohol effects were found for several measures, but the only significant interaction of individual differences in expectancies of alcohol effects with alcohol dosing occurred for self-perceived intoxication. Subjects who expected more disinhibition after alcohol dosing and who were administered alcohol reported more intoxication than those expecting less disinhibition, while no expectancy effect was found for subjects administered the placebo.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SUCCESSFUL JOB SEARCHES FOLLOWING LAY-OFF

A field study was conducted to examine attitudinal and behavioral variables associated with reemployment following job termination. Thirty-five employees were surveyed within two days following termination. Of those surveyed, 23 were contacted one month later regarding employment status. Analyses revealed that reemployed persons were significantly more confident of job search skills and had engaged in a greater number of search behaviors than had individuals who had remained unemployed. No significant differences between the reemployed and still unemployed groups were obtained in affective responses to termination or nonwork-related variables. The findings suggest that reemployment success is related to individual differences in expectations of successful job search. Implications for future research on job loss and reemployment are discussed.

Socialization of Achievement Attitudes and Beliefs: Classroom Influences

PARSONS, JACQUELYNNE ECCLES; KACZALA, CAROLINE M.; and MEECE, JUDITH L. Socialization of Achievement Attitudes and Beliefs: Classroom Influences. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1982, 53, 322-339. The relation between classroom experiences and individual differences in expectations for future success in mathematics courses, self-concept of math abilities and perceptions of the difficulty of math were investigated in an observational study of 17 math classrooms for grades 5-9. 2 questions were addressed: (1) Does the sex of the student or the teacher's expectation for the student influence the nature of student-teacher interactions? (2) Do variations in teacherstudent interaction patterns affect student attitudes? Although few sex differences emerged, girls received less criticism than boys, especially low-teacher-expectancy boys, and high-teacher-expectancy females received less praise than other groups. No support was found for sex differences in teacher discriminant use of praise and criticism. Some support was found for more general sex differences and teacher expectation differences in teacher behavior. Multiple-regression analyses, with the students' past grades used as a control variable, showed that teacher behaviors influence children's attitudes but the effects differ for males and females; for example, self-concept of ability for boys, but not for girls, was predicted by relatively high levels of both teacher criticism and praise. In general, past grades and student-teacher interaction variables accounted for a larger percentage of the variation in boys' attitudes than in girls'. In the second set of analyses 2 types of classrooms were compared: classrooms in which boys and girls had equally high future expectations and classrooms in which boys have higher future expectations. Boys and girls were treated differently in these 2 classroom types. The data suggest that boys and girls have equivalent expectations when the relative distribution of praise and criticism within a class across highand low-teacher-expectancy groups is similar for both sexes.