Individual Differences In Arousal Research Articles

Effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation over right-DLPFC on vigilance tasks depend on the arousal level

Current theoretical accounts on the oscillatory nature of sustained attention predict that entrainment via transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) at alpha and theta frequencies on specific areas of the prefrontal cortex could prevent the drops in vigilance across time-on-task. Nonetheless, most previous studies have neglected both the fact that vigilance comprises two dissociable components (i.e., arousal and executive vigilance) and the potential role of differences in arousal levels. We examined the effects of theta- and alpha-tACS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in both components of vigilance and in participants who differed in arousal level according to their chronotype and time of testing. Intermediate-types performed the vigilance tasks when their arousal level was optimal, whereas evening-types performed the vigilance tasks when their arousal levels were non-optimal. Both theta- and alpha-tACS improved arousal vigilance in the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), whereas alpha-tACS, but not theta-tACS, improved executive vigilance in the sustained attention to response task (SART), and counteracted the typical vigilance decrement usually observed in this task. Importantly, these stimulation effects were only found when arousal was low (i.e., with evening-types performing the tasks at their non-optimal time of day). The results support the multicomponent view of vigilance, the relevance of heeding individual differences in arousal, and the role of alpha oscillations as a long-range cortical scale synchronization mechanism that compensates the decrements in performance as a function of time-on-task by exerting and maintaining cognitive control attributed to activation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Chute scoring as a potential method for assessing individual differences in arousal among ewes

Chute scoring has been used among beef and dairy operations as a method to gauge the relative phenotypic characteristics of animals based on response to physical restraint. While elements of the cattle chute score, such as tail flicking, exit speed, and side kicking, have been validated as behavioral indicators of arousal in cattle, a robust and species-appropriate scale has not been developed for sheep. Given that individual monitoring of breeding ewes is growing in the sheep industry, it could be beneficial to develop such a rating system for ewes. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the consistency of chute score values and behavioral measures over repeated trials, (2) provide a subjective scoring system that human observers may use to identify behavioral indicators of arousal in sheep, and (3) determine if there are physiological measurements which are related to subjective chute scores. Twenty-eight multiparous, crossbred ewes from the same breeding group were restrained in a squeeze chute for 10 min, once a week for five weeks. Trained researchers gave each ewe a chute score based on the behaviors observed. A ‘1−3’ subjective scale adapted from cattle literature was used to designate score values to each ewe (with scores increasing relative to observable agitation). Measures of heart rate, respiration rate, and surface eye temperature were collected while ewes were restrained. Video data of restrained ewes were coded for order of entry, step and bleat rate, and, latency to exit the chute. Chute scores were highly consistent within ewes between nearly all trial day combinations. Positive and significant correlations (Kendall’s Tau) were found between the third, fourth and fifth trials for bleat rate (P < 0.001), step rate (P < 0.001), latency to exit chute (P < 0.001), eye temperature (P < 0.01), and heart rate (P = 0.01). Step rate was a consistent and significant predictor of chute scores on the ‘1−3’ scale (P < 0.0001). Significant differences in heart rate and eye temperature were found between scores 1 and 2, however no overall differences were found between scores 2 and 3 when physiological measures were analyzed independently. Once physiological information was aggregated into a collective arousal response, significant differences were identified between scores 1 and 2 (P = 0.001), and, 2 and 3 (P = 0.05). The authors suggest a simple 3-point scale may be reasonable for detecting relative differences in reactivity for production ewes, with inclusion of elements of active behaviors related to arousal (e.g. vigilance behavior, ear postures).

Portuguese Version of the Arousal Predisposition Scale: Preliminary Evidence for a Two-Factor Structure in a Nonclinical Sample.

It is known that there is significant variability in arousal levels of the individuals. The Arousal Predisposition Scale (APS) is a questionnaire intended to measure individual differences in arousability. In the current work, our aim was to present the initial psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the APS. Three hundred forty-five undergraduate medical students from both genders were enrolled. All participants filled out a set of questionnaires-which contained the APS-at the end of their lectures and out of the evaluation period. The APS showed good internal consistency (α = .85) and discriminated individuals with extreme scores. Further, in general, the scale discriminated as well both genders pertaining to the individual items and total score. In terms of scale structure, two related factors were extracted (F1 = emotional reactivity and F2 = trait anxiety). Significant associations among APS and other sleep and psychological self-report variables were also observed. The APS seems to be a reliable and valid instrument to assess self-reported physiological arousability, at least in a sample of young adults. The two-factor composition will require more studies to be replicated in similar groups and, particularly, in clinical samples.

Effort-reward imbalance at work is predicted by temporal and energetic characteristics of behavior: A population-based study

Personality dispositions may influence perceptions of work stress. The paper examines the relationship between temperament in terms of Strelau’s Regulative Theory of Temperament and the effort-reward imbalance and its components. There were 890 participants (360 men) aged 37.9 years on average. Temperament traits of briskness and perseveration (temporal characteristics of behavior), sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance and activity (energetic characteristics of behavior) were measured by Strelau & Zawadzki’s Formal Characteristics of Behavior- Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI) in 1997 and 2001. Effort and reward at work were assessed with the original effort- reward imbalance (ERI) questionnaire of 2007. Higher ERI at work was predicted by higher emotional reactivity, higher perseveration, lower briskness, and lower endurance. Higher effort and lower rewards at work were predicted by higher perseveration and lower endurance. The FCB-TI temperament characteristics accounted for 5.2%, 4.8% and 6.5% of the variance in the ERI, effort and reward, respectively. Lower emotional reactivity, lower perseveration, higher brisk- ness and higher endurance predicted higher esteem at work, job promotion and job security. Individual differences in arousability, reflected in temporal and energetic characteristics of behavior, may predispose to or to protect from an effort-reward imbalance at work. Individual differences should be acknowledged in work stress prevention and developing interventions.

The development of skin conductance fear conditioning in children from ages 3 to 8 years

Although fear conditioning is an important psychological construct implicated in behavioral and emotional problems, little is known about how it develops in early childhood. Using a differential, partial reinforcement conditioning paradigm, this longitudinal study assessed skin conductance conditioned responses in 200 children at ages 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 years. Results demonstrated that in both boys and girls: (1) fear conditioning increased across age, particularly from ages 5 to 6 years, (2) the three components of skin conductance fear conditioning that reflect different degrees of automatic and controlled cognitive processes exhibited different developmental profiles, and (3) individual differences in arousal, orienting, and the unconditioned response were associated with individual differences in conditioning, with the influence of orienting increasing at later ages. This first longitudinal study of the development of skin conductance fear conditioning in children both demonstrates that children as young as age 3 years evidence fear conditioning in a difficult acquisition paradigm, and that different sub-components of skin conductance conditioning have different developmental trajectories.

Sensation Seeking, the Activation Model, and Mass Media Health Campaigns: Current Findings and Future Directions for Cancer Communication

The Activation Model of Information Exposure highlights the potential for individual differences in arousal in response to information, as well as the consequences of these patterns for information processing and seeking. Over the past 2 decades, the theoretical approach has generated considerable research in health communication. Most applications, however, have focused on substance use among adolescents and young adults. In this article, we assess the relevance of the activation approach for cancer communication. Although a wide range of communication efforts related to cancer prevention and treatment stand to benefit from acknowledgement of individual differences in optimal levels of arousal, we also acknowledge issues and challenges that remain for work on the Activation Model and sensation seeking. In reaching this conclusion, we explore some limitations of the Activation Model in its current form and point to new directions for future research.

Autonomic correlates of individual differences in sensitization and look duration during infancy

Patterns of infant visual attention have been attributed to both the processes of habituation and arousal. Previous research has linked individual differences in arousal (sensitization) with measures from habituation that have been associated with the efficiency of stimulus encoding (look duration). The aim of current study was to validate individual differences in these realms with a convergent measure of attention based on heart rate (HR) that might presumably reflect autonomic function and arousal. In contrast with previous work, neither habituation nor look durations differed significantly as a function of the presence of sensitization. HR variables did not differentiate infants who showed sensitization from those who did not. HR analyses on individual differences in look duration, however, yielded two significant findings: short-looking infants maintained higher levels of HR variability than long-looking infants across the session, and long-looking infants had greater HR accelerations to stimulus onsets than did short-looking infants.

Individual Differences in Arousal and Accessibility to Information in Memory

The authors conducted 9 experiments to test the hypothesis (S. Schwartz, 1975) that arousal influences the accessibility of information stored in memory. They investigated the relationship between arousal levels (as indexed by personality types) and the type of stimuli or cues presented during study or test. They predicted that low-arousal individuals (stable extroverted individuals in Experiments 1-3 and 5-9 and high-impulsive individuals in Experiment 4) would be influenced by semantic stimuli, whereas high-arousal individuals (neurotic introverted individuals in Experiments 1-3 and 5-9 and low-impulsive individuals in Experiment 4) would be influenced by physical (i.e., graphic, phonetic, or both) stimuli. They tested the arousal-accessibility hypothesis by using a variety of tasks including verbal discrimination, false recognition, cued recall, and paired associates. With the exception of the finding that stable extroverted participants performed better than neurotic introverted participants on an incidental associative-matching task (Experiment 3), the results from the verbal discrimination studies (1-5) did not support the hypothesis. In Experiment 6, the authors tested the hypothesis by using a false-recognition task. False alarms varied as a function of phonetic and semantic stimuli, but personality types were not differentially sensitive to the manipulation. The same was true for the cued-recall studies (Experiments 7 and 8); personality types were not differentially sensitive to the semantic and phonetic stimuli. Experiment 9 (paired-associate learning) was a replication of Schwartz's study. The authors found some support for the Schwartz hypothesis: Extraverted participants were adversely affected by semantic similarity. Overall, the findings did not provide much support for the arousal-accessability hypothesis.

Individual differences in arousability: Implications for understanding immediate and lingering emotional reactions to frightening mass media

Many recent studies in mass communication have investigated emotional responses to frightening movies and television programs. However, little research has been directed toward documenting and explaining the occurrence of enduring fright reactions that linger on, in one form or another, long after exposure to the media stimulus. The present study investigated the relationship between individual differences in “arousability”; (as measured by the Stimulus Screening Questionnaire) and the tendency to report enduring negative reactions from exposure to frightening media. In addition, participants in the study were exposed to a segment from a frightening film and self‐report indicators of emotional response were collected and related to arousability. Skin temperature and skin conductance were also monitored during the film segment and related to arousability. The results indicated that arousability was related to both enduring and immediate fright reactions. The physiological indicators were associated with ar...

Prediction of Task‐Related Arousal Under Conditions of Environmental Distraction1

The Arousability Predisposition Scale (APS) was used to assess individual differences in arousal that occur when a task is performed under conditions of environmental distraction. The APS is a brief (12‐item) scale, that purportedly measures arousability as a trait or predisposition. To manipulate arousal experimentally, subjects performed a speeded search task under conditions of visual and auditory distraction. Pre‐ and postdistraction task measures of arousal were taken using Thayer's Activation‐Deactivation Adjective Check List. The distraction task caused a general increase in arousal as compared to a control group who did not perform the task. Although there were no differences in pretest measures, subjects judged highly arousable on the APS showed a greater change in task‐related arousal than subjects judged low on arousability, validating the usefulness of the APS as a measure of arousability under conditions of environmental stress.

The arousal predisposition scale: Normative data

The arousal predisposition scale (APS) is a 12-item inventory that has been designed to measure individual differences in arousability. It has already been shown to predict patterns of sleep disruption, and task related arousal increases. Norms for the APS, based on data from 786 university students, are provided. Since the data indicate that there is a sex difference in arousability, with females showing higher APS scores, data are also tabulated separately by gender.

The effects of distance and individual differences in arousability on nonverbal involvement: A test of discrepancy-arousal theory

“Mutual influence in human interaction” refers to the tendency for persons to alter their verbal, vocal, and kinesic behaviors in response to the intensity, frequency or duration of those behaviors emitted by their partners. Numerous explanations of these processes have been put forward involving principles of approach-avoidance conflict, arousal, reward, and cognitive processes. These explanations are reviewed with special attention given to an arousal based theory, discrepancy-arousal. This theory holds that mutual influence is primarily the result of arousal changes due to the degree of discrepancy of partner's behavior from the receiver's expectation. The theory predicts that persons who differ in reaction to arousal should also differ in their response to a partner's immediacy. This hypothesis was tested on high and low sensation seekers under conditions of near and normal distances during an interview. Several different behavioral responses were coded, including eye gaze, posture and orientation, smiles and laughter, object- and body-focused gestures, vocalization, pauses, and latencies to respond. The hypothesized interaction did not materialize with a median split on sensation seeking. A measure of state-trait sensation seeking (STSS) was developed. The interaction between distance and a median split on the state-trait measure was significant for eye gaze and posture and orientation, with the high STSS subjects compensating less than the low STSS subjects.

Attention to semantic versus phonetic verbal attributes as a function of individual differences in arousal and learning strategy

It has been argued that deep processing of semantic information helps students to learn faster and perform better on classroom tests. Using paired associates tasks, it has been found that high arousal subjects make more errors when the response terms are phonetically similar. Subjects low on arousal make more errors when response words are semantically similar. If the encodings of semantic features are assumed to be “deeper” and more durable than the encodings of “shallow,” phonetic features, then studies have suggested that anxious students process shallowly and are thus at a disadvantage when learning information. The present study treats deep processing as a learning style and used the Synthesis—Analysis scale of the Inventory of Learning Processes to assess it. It is hypothesized that arousal would be negatively related to the learning style of deep processing. It is also hypothesized that the interaction obtained in earlier studies, i.e., greater susceptibility to semantic interference with low arousal and phonetic interference with high arousal, would occur only when Synthesis—Analysis scores are low. It is assumed that the habitual use of a deep processing strategy by students high on Synthesis—Analysis could counteract the limiting effect of arousal on cue utilization. The study provides support for both hypotheses.

The Archimedes spiral after‐effect as a test of arousability

The idea of the Archimedes spiral after‐effect (SAE) providing an estimate of the change of arousal that can be induced in an individual by stimulation (i.e. arousability) has been derived from personality studies of normal subjects and psychiatric patients. However, the concept of arousability has been formulated from group studies and the results from normal subjects are equivocal. An experiment was therefore conducted to test the hypothesis that the SAE measures arousability in normal subjects. After‐effect duration at three levels of activation brought about by riding a bicycle ergometer was measured in 12 subjects. The index of arousal used was beat‐by‐beat heart rate. The results show that (a) the ergometer significantly altered heart‐rate levels; (b) after‐effect duration did not alter significantly at different heart‐rate levels; (c) after‐effect duration did not correlate significantly with heart‐rate level; (d) after‐effect duration did correlate significantly and negatively with change in heart‐rate level. These findings are taken as support for the hypothesis that after‐effect duration is related to the magnitude of change of activation. The relationship of heart rate, as an autonomic index of arousal, to cortical arousal indices is discussed and it is concluded that the SAE is a test of individual differences in arousability.

Extraversion and neuroticism in chronic residents of a state hospital

The Eysenck Personality Inventory was administered to residents of a state hospital ward, where a combination token economy and step system was in effect. The three steps were hypothesized to be inversely related to degree of stimulation provided, the highest step involving the lowest stimulation. The results supported the hypothesis. Neuroticism did not correlate significantly with step, although it significantly increased the multiple in a stepwise regression. Extraversion correlated significantly with ward behavior ratings. The results were interpreted as reflecting the effects of individual differences in arousal on the nature of reinforcers.

Arousal and Cognition: Creative Performance, Arousal and the Stimulation-Seeking Motive

On an hypothesis that intermediate values of individual differences in arousal or stimulation-seeking would be associated with best performance in timed tests of originality and fluency, undergraduate volunteers were administered the Unusual Questions Test and stratified on the basis of two stimulation-seeking measures into high, intermediate and low stimulation-seeking groups of 21 subjects each. Planned comparisons showed that, although both originality and fluency were related to stimulation-seeking in the predicted curvilinear form, only where fluency was concerned was a significant difference noted. Intermediate stimulation-seeking subjects were significantly more fluent than subjects low in stimulation-seeking although the former were not significantly different from high stimulation-seeking subjects. It was concluded that the experimental hypothesis had received limited support; further avenues to the study of arousal and stimulation-seeking factors in creative performance were outlined.

Short- and long-term memory as a function of individual differences in arousal.

In a paired-associate learning experiment employing 40 university students as Ss, the contribution of individual differences in arousal to short-and long-term retention was investigated using individual differences in salivary response to lemon juice stimulation as an index of arousal. Experimental Ss were pre-selected from 99 Ss on the basis of extreme arousal scores. The hypotheses were confirmed; low-arousal recall is greater than high-arousal recall on a test of short-term retention ( p &lt; .08) and high-arousal recall is greater than low-arousal recall on a test of long-term retention ( p &lt; .04).

Some perceptual correlates of individual differences in arousal.

Some perceptual correlates of individual differences in arousal.