Individual Depositors Research Articles

PubChem synonym filtering process using crowdsourcing

PubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) is a public chemical information resource containing more than 100 million unique chemical structures. One of the most requested tasks in PubChem and other chemical databases is to search chemicals by name (also commonly called a “chemical synonym”). PubChem performs this task by looking up chemical synonym-structure associations provided by individual depositors to PubChem. In addition, these synonyms are used for many purposes, including creating links between chemicals and PubMed articles (using Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms). However, these depositor-provided name-structure associations are subject to substantial discrepancies within and between depositors, making it difficult to unambiguously map a chemical name to a specific chemical structure. The present paper describes PubChem’s crowdsourcing-based synonym filtering strategy, which resolves inter- and intra-depositor discrepancies in synonym-structure associations as well as in the chemical-MeSH associations. The PubChem synonym filtering process was developed based on the analysis of four crowd-voting strategies, which differ in the consistency threshold value employed (60% vs 70%) and how to resolve intra-depositor discrepancies (a single vote vs. multiple votes per depositor) prior to inter-depositor crowd-voting. The agreement of voting was determined at six levels of chemical equivalency, which considers varying isotopic composition, stereochemistry, and connectivity of chemical structures and their primary components. While all four strategies showed comparable results, Strategy I (one vote per depositor with a 60% consistency threshold) resulted in the most synonyms assigned to a single chemical structure as well as the most synonym-structure associations disambiguated at the six chemical equivalency contexts. Based on the results of this study, Strategy I was implemented in PubChem’s filtering process that cleans up synonym-structure associations as well as chemical-MeSH associations. This consistency-based filtering process is designed to look for a consensus in name-structure associations but cannot attest to their correctness. As a result, it can fail to recognize correct name-structure associations (or incorrect ones), for example, when a synonym is provided by only one depositor or when many contributors are incorrect. However, this filtering process is an important starting point for quality control in name-structure associations in large chemical databases like PubChem.

The role of institutional policies in the sustainability of institutional repositories in Africa: A reflection from Ghana

Institutional repositories (IRs) are increasingly gaining prominence among African academic institutions, and Ghana is no exception. This can largely be attributed to the enduring value of hosting research outputs from institutional and individual depositors. Despite its increasing adoption, there is a growing concern about the sustainability of open access IRs, particularly in Africa. However, most of these factors that threaten the sustainability of IRs on the continent can be mitigated by enacting comprehensive institutional policies. Thus, this study sought to examine the role of institutional policies in the sustainability of IRs in Ghana. A total of 830 respondents comprised of IR managers, library staff, postgraduate students, lecturers and university librarians (management) from five public universities in Ghana took part in this study. Questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and document analysis were the main instruments used for data collection. The study yielded an overall response rate of 92.8%. The study findings revealed that public universities in Ghana have institutional IR policies that guide the operation, usage and management of their IRs. However, these policies were persuasive in nature and mainly focused on content submission and generation issues. The study underscored the IR policy’s importance in addressing content generation, awareness, advocacy and copyright restriction challenges. The study recommends the necessity of IR policies to focus on other factors such as technical requirements, expertise and others to ensure the sustainability of these repositories.

Write – off doubtful assets in financial institutions - with special referance to select banking sectors

The economic history of many countries reveals that financial sustainability provides not only economic development but also develops financial infrastructure, always both should go hand in hand” Now a days, financial institutions are playing vital role in the development of economy particularly banking sectors includes Commercial banks and Investment banks, leasing companies,microfinance institutions. All these forms of financial institutions are united for providing intermediate financial flow by accepting deposits from the individual depositors or wide range of Business Operations provided these financial flows to the individuals and corporate borrowers, mainly in the form of business and commercial lending in the form of short term and long-term basis and charge interest. Because of customers or clients just don’t pay what they owe, recession (trade and industrial activities are reduced) lower exports and restriction in cash withdrawals create high percentage of Non-Performing Assets (NPA). Particularly it creates Doubtful assets and loss assets. Usually banking sectors use the allowance method for purpose other than income tax and direct method to write off these assets. The finance minister informed the Lok Sabha that Schedule Commercial Banks have been written off loans worth Rs. 5.85-lakh crore. Due to large scale disruption caused by COVID- 19, bad loans in the banks are likely to increase by 200 to 300 bps by March 2021 this certainly call for special dispensation to deal with bad loans and to maintain financial health of banks. Towards this end Indian Bankers Association has again mooted a off balance sheet solution. This paper study the impact of these issues.

Accessibility, Discoverability, and Functionality: An Audit of and Recommendations for Digital Language Archives

While digital archiving has long been standard for linguistics, archives themselves are heterogeneous (Aznar &amp; Seifart 2020), and archived linguistic material is important for researchers and communities, particularly for language reclamation (cf. Baldwin &amp; Olds 2007; Whalen et al. 2016; Hinton 2003, 2018; Kung et al. 2020). The format and usability of scholarly archival collections is shaped by the functions of the management practices at the stewarding institution, making an appreciation of the range of access services provided by such institutions relevant to the evaluation of individual collections. Here we report on a review of 41 digital language archives. Three factors are examined: 1) <strong>accessibility</strong>, including metadata and site navigation; 2) <strong>discoverability</strong>, or searchability and internal navigation; and 3) <strong>functionality</strong>, the overall ease of data retrieval and use. We recognize that the decisions made by both stewards and depositors can greatly impact the accessibility of archived materials; to that end, we present <strong>recommendations</strong> for how archives might increase the utility of their holdings for their users. We emphasize that our intention is not to dissuade linguists from using archives because of these issues, and we recognize the tremendous amount of work that goes into the upkeep of digital infrastructure, often with very limited institutional support. Implementing such recommendations at an institutional level can establish a fairer peer-review process of archival collections. By delineating precisely what standards fall under the archive management level and what procedures individual depositors are responsible for, the roles of “archivist” and “depositor” become clearer.

Predictive Factors of Withdrawal Behavior among Profit-Sharing Investment Depositors in Morocco: A Qualitative Study from the Perspective of Push-Pull-Mooring Framework

The main purpose of this study is to examine the determinants of deposit withdrawal behavior amongst profit-sharing deposit account holders. Based on the Push-Pull-Mooring theory, a qualitative study was conducted, with fifteen personal interviews undertaken with profit-sharing investment depositors selected from three participatory banks using a purposive sampling technique. Assessment of the predictive factors determining deposit withdrawal behavior resulted in three categories. The push factors were found to be, in order of decreasing frequency: (1) Sharia non-compliance risk, (2) lower rate of return, (3) deposit guarantee scheme and (4) customer relationship quality failure. The push factors were labeled as (a) conventional term deposit attractiveness, (b) conventional banks history and (c) number of branches. The mooring factors were found to be: (i) religiosity, (ii) switching costs, (iii) third-party influence and (iv) involuntary switching factors. This study has limitations that should be considered for future research. First and foremost, all interviewees were selected by the banks’ managers. Moreover, they were identified as individual depositors; thus, they displayed opinions, which may differ from those of corporate depositors. Despite the discussed limitations, the findings generated from this study have important implications for researchers, financial marketing managers as well as the policy makers and regulators. In terms of contribution to the body of knowledge, the study aimed to investigate the predictive factors of deposit withdrawal behavior in another context that of Morocco, which has not yet been explored in the literature. In addition, the findings of this study are critical to financial marketing managers for strategic marketing programs as it stresses the importance of satisfaction dimensions within a dual banking system, as is the case in Morocco. Furthermore, this study provides great indications to the policy makers and regulators on the perception of the Moroccan investment account depositors, in order to develop policies that could improve the participatory banking system in Morocco.

Bank Runs And Media Freedom: What You Don’t Know Won’t Hurt You?

During periods of financial turmoil, depositor behaviour is influenced by the economic information environment, which is largely formed by the media—at least for retail depositors. Therefore the severity of bank runs during financial crises, and their efficiency might be conditional on the volume of the bad news appearing in the media during a crisis. If the news flow remains unrestrained, then the probability of bank runs will increase due to the information sensitivity of depositors. Examining whether it is possible to reduce the severity of bank runs during a crisis by controlling the media, we use the panel data 28 countries from 2001 until 2016. We analyze the impact of media freedom on the growth rate of retail deposits: the major role in bank runs is usually played by unsophisticated individual depositors. Generally the results do not support the hypothesis that changes in the degree of media freedom directly influence behavioural strategies of retail depositors during financial crises. However information limitations may be an instrument to support the market discipline mechanisms: higher media freedom during crises seems to blur the information environment depositors make decisions in. Media restrictions could also prevent the financial literacy effect from dilution during financial crises, ensuring that market discipline is not further undermined.

Ліквідація неплатоспроможного банку за участю інвестора: організація, процедури, переваги

The article is aimed at systematizing and identifying the features, advantages and disadvantages of various ways of withdrawing insolvent banks from the market, as well as studying the consequences of their implementation in domestic practice. Liquidation of a bank with reimbursement of all funds on deposits of individuals by the Deposit Guarantee Fund (DGF) is simple and affordable, but the most expensive and inefficient way. It is noted that at present the Fund has liquidated more than 50 banks, now the process of liquidation of 48 more banks is continuing. The most promising are two methods that are implemented with the participation of the investor through the tender procedure. This is the creation of a transitional bank with the subsequent selling to the investor and the selling of the bank as an integral unit to the investor. The implementation of these methods involves the search for an investor and the receipt of investment resources, which always appears positive. Therefore, the article describes in detail the specifics of these restorative, or sanitation, methods of withdrawal of an insolvent bank, analyzes their advantages and weaknesses. Organizational procedures for the application of these methods of withdrawal of insolvent banks from the market are generalized and structured. It was emphasized that in the process of withdrawing an insolvent bank from the market due to the selling, the financial burden on the DGF is decreasing. The Fund does not reimburse the funds of individual depositors, since all obligations under guaranteed deposits are transferred to either the transitional bank or the new owner of the bank in full. It is substantiated that these methods require modernization, updating and a closer definition of the relevant organizational and procedural components. This will increase the efficiency of approaches for further use, and most importantly, for preventing the eventual adverse consequences.

The Little Bank That Could: An Examination of the Historical and Financial Records of One Bank That Survived the Great Depression

ABSTRACT Founded in 1910, The First National Bank of Oxford had been in existence for only about 20 years when the Great Depression struck. While other banks failed, this small bank in rural Mississippi survived, and it is still in operation today as FNB Oxford Bank. But beyond merely surviving, the First National Bank of Oxford appears to have thrived in this harsh financial climate: it doubled the balance of its individual depositors' accounts in the midst of the darkest months of the Great Depression. Using historical documents and extant accounting records, this paper examines how the First National Bank of Oxford was able to persist and prosper through the Great Depression. JEL Classifications: E02; G01; G21; G33; M41; N21. Data Availability: Data are available from the public sources cited in the text.

Фінансові відносини як об’єкт посягання у злочинах кредитно-фінансової системи

At present in Ukraine the credit and financial system is one of the main links in the sphere of finance, serving as the most determinant segment of the market economy and affects all the processes taking place in the society and the state. A special feature of the economic situation in Ukraine is that a significant part of the financial and legal institutions is practically can’t fully function without the proper, legal, in particular criminal legal support and protection. In this case, it’s not just about protecting budgetary interests of society, but also about the interests of individual depositors and shareholders, the protection of the interests of financial institutions from dubious managers and founders, from unlawful interference in their activity of law enforcement bodies, from persons who receive large credits by fraudulent or other illegal actions, not wanting their refund (including the price of its own bankruptcy), from organized crime groups, etc. A comprehensive description of financial relations as an object of an offense in the credit and financial system is provided in the paper. Not only the phenomenon under study, but also the state and trends of crime in the credit and financial sphere are analyzed. The reasons and conditions that give rise to credit and financial crime are investigated. Particular attention is paid to the study of financial relations as an object of encroachment in crimes against the credit and financial system. On the basis of the analysis of national and international legislation, the issues were outlined, but also proposals were made to improve the current legislation of Ukraine.

Negative Interest Rates

Following the financial crisis of 2007, central banks have been pouring trillions of dollars to the commercial banks, even though the recent economic conditions are not similar to the ones of 2007. Then, there was a serious shortage of liquidity, banks were at the risk of bankruptcy, and the domino effect was a real threat, as in the 1932 crisis. It appears central banks follow these policies because they are haunted by the memory of the 1932 crisis. In addition, some researchers claim that the real reason is the nature of central banks: In some countries (particularly the “Fed” in the US) central banks operate mostly for the interest of their shareholders, the major private banks. Their policies allow the commercial banks to benefit a great deal . Presumably, the intent of these policies is to benefit the whole economy by stimulating investment, and reducing the exchange rate of a country.The policy mentioned above has achieved goal to a minor degree, contrary to the dictums of the traditional economic theory. By contrast to economic theory, several commercial banks have stored surplus funds with their central banks, to the point that the last ones penalize them for their deposits. Similarly, because there is not enough demand of funds by the private sector, the commercial banks are also induced to penalize their depositors. Facing these penalties, commercial banks have responded to saving in “warehouses” (real, or electronic ones), and individual depositors by keeping their funds “under their mattress” (an expression equivalent to “warehouses”). This creates concerns about the cost of using warehouses, the major component of which is the cost of keeping them secure.In addition to the use of “warehouses”, the investment funds of the public tend to be drawn to risky investment projects in order to earn some return. Also, commercial banks (given that they can borrow at low rates from the central bank), may engage in speculative projects abroad. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the conditions that have led to this situation.

Information Acquisition in Rumor‐Based Bank Runs

ABSTRACTWe study information acquisition and dynamic withdrawal decisions when a spreading rumor exposes a solvent bank to a run. Uncertainty about the bank's liquidity and potential failure motivates depositors who hear the rumor to acquire additional noisy signals. Depositors with less informative signals may wait before gradually running on the bank, leading to an endogenous aggregate withdrawal speed and bank survival time. Private information acquisition about liquidity can subject solvent‐but‐illiquid banks to runs, and shorten the survival time of failing banks. Public provision of solvency information can mitigate runs by indirectly crowding‐out individual depositors' effort to acquire liquidity information.

Protection of the Rights of Individual Depositors in Ukrainian Banking Market

The complex analysis of deposit operations of individuals in Ukraine was realized. The national legal norms of protection the rights of investors – individuals were investigated. Also the proposals were developed for the further improvement of the protection system of individual depositor rights in Ukraine by improving banking regulation and supervision, the increase of the financial sustainability of the Deposit Guarantee Fund and financial literacy of citizens.

Volcker rule, ring-fencing or separation of bank activities – Comparison of structural reform acts around the world

One of the key issues in the on-going overhaul of the global financial system is the structural reform of banking systems. Legislatures in different states, for example, the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom, have all taken measures to protect individual depositors’ assets against losses from risky bank activities. On 29 January 2014, the European Commission joined the transnational effort by publishing its own proposal on the subject. This contribution shows how the same economic goal is implemented through different approaches by legislatures across the globe. It also analyses how this legal diversity will affect the level playing field in the competition for banking services and the consistency of global financial regulation.

Volcker Rule, Ring-Fencing or Separation of Bank Activities - Comparison of Structural Reform Acts Around the World

One of the key issues in the on-going overhaul of the global financial system is the structural reform of banking systems. Legislatures in different states, e.g. the United States, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, have all taken measures to protect individual depositors’ assets against losses from risky bank activities. On 29 January 2014, the European Commission joined the transnational effort by publishing its own proposal on the subject. This contribution shows how the same economic goal is implemented through different approaches by legislatures across the globe. It also analyses how this legal diversity will affect the level playing field in the competition for banking services and the consistency of global financial regulation.

Protecting interbank payments in the United Kingdom: an examination of the legal framework

The global banking crisis and the recent failure of the computer systems at one of the UK's major deposit-taking banks have, together, highlighted the problems caused by the interconnectedness of banks and the importance of protecting interbank payment systems (IBSs). Current account holders are, in effect, people who need access to a payment system. If this access is denied to them, they will quickly run into financial difficulties. Nor is it enough for a current account holder simply to have access to money: it is also crucial to ensure that bill and other payments requested by an account holder are actually being made by his or her bank. This article considers whether the arrangements for the oversight of IBSs provided under the current UK regulatory and legal framework give adequate protection to individual depositors and banks within the system.

On the assignment of biopharmaceutical patents

This study focuses on the patent assignments for six selected biopharmaceuticals: filgrastim, infliximab, somatropin, imiglucerase, betainterferon and factor VIII. These very expensive proteins are not currently produced in Brazil, and their production would enhance Brazilian technological capacity. Accordingly, we characterized the current profiles of the patent holders for these proteins. Data mining techniques were used to simplify the screening and analysis of thousands of patent entries retrieved from data banks worldwide, using the International Patent Classification (IPC) codes A61K, A61P and C12N as a guide. A critical assessment of the historical evolution of biopharmaceutical patents and a geographic distribution analysis of their depositors conclude that individual depositors have a strong, growing influence on the overall patent assignment profile. Individual depositors file patents primarily in collaboration with companies, research centers or universities. We also concluded that, in the next few years, emerging or spin-offs companies will constitute an increasing share of the competitors of consolidated technology holders (Big Pharma companies, research centers and universities). This information may prove interesting for entrepreneurs involved in public, private or joint ventures regarding the fabrication of strategic biopharmaceuticals.

Explicit and Implicit Costs of Government-Provided Deposit Insurance

The Diamond–Dybvig model is often cited as a theoretical justification for government-provided deposit insurance. Guaranteeing bank deposits removes the temptation for individual depositors to run on the bank and thereby precludes the need to ever use the deposit insurance. Hence, deposit insurance provides a costless solution to the threat of bank runs. In practice, however, government-provided deposit insurance is not a costless solution as it is frequently invoked to cover the losses of failed banks. We maintain that potential alternatives to government deposit insurance should be compared to the current system rather than to a theoretically optimal system of insurance. Focusing on the FDIC, we consider the differences between deposit insurance in theory and practice, review how the explicit cost of providing deposit insurance has changed over time, and consider implicit costs from taxpayer backing and suboptimal assessment rates.

Withdrawal History, Private Information, and Bank Runs

This paper provides a simple two-depositor, two-stage model to understand how a bank’s withdrawal history affects an individual’s decision about withdrawals, which could possibly trigger bank runs. Individual depositors have private information about their personal consumption types and receive noisy private signals about the quality of the bank’s portfolio. Depositors make publicly observable withdrawal decisions in sequence. Computed examples indicate that the optimal contract contingent on withdrawal histories can tolerate bank runs. These runs are triggered by unfavorable signals about a bank’s portfolio, and early liquidation of unsuccessful investments can avoid future losses. Because the signals are private, a depositor’s action is the only way to partially reveal his private information. A runadmitting bank contract allows information to be revealed. However, if signals are too noisy, bank runs may occur too often when fundamentals are strong. In this case, a bank would offer a run-proof contract. Given the relevant role of information, a policy that makes private information public would be useful to improve welfare and eliminate bank runs. (JEL C73, D82, E59, G21)

Information Acquisition in Rumor-Based Bank Runs

We study information acquisition and dynamic withdrawal decisions when a spreading rumor exposes a solvent bank to a run. Uncertainty about the bank's liquidity and potential failure motivates depositors who hear the rumor to acquire additional noisy signals. Depositors with less informative signals may wait before gradually running on the bank, leading to an endogenous aggregate withdrawal speed and bank survival time. Private information acquisition about liquidity can subject solvent-but-illiquid banks to runs, and shorten the survival time of failing banks. Public provision of solvency information can mitigate runs by indirectly crowding-out individual depositors' effort to acquire liquidity information.

Financial Competence of Individual Depositors: The Influence of Institutional Factors on Market Discipline and Depositors' Investment Strategies

This paper examines the investment strategies of individual depositors in Russia. Basing on the results of the poll covering depositors of eight Moscow banks we study the depositors' decision-making processes in making choice of the bank, determining whether it is reliable, monitoring of this reliability and using the mechanisms of market discipline. We found the confirmation for market discipline hypothesis in terms of depositors' intentions: bank clients claim that the information about changes in bank's financial indicators they are ready to change their investment strategies. We found out that while the depositor's total funds in his or her bank grow the intensity of market discipline falls, but the propensity to monitor the reliability of the bank increases. The latter is also true when the share of insured deposits in total deposits decreases. The deposit insurance system added some confidence in bank reliability, but there is the significant proportion of depositors who do not believe in the guaranties provided by the system as well of those who have incorrect notion of DIS compensation mechanisms. However it is the depositors, for whom the deposit insurance coverage is not enough, who are the most likely to become the subjects of market discipline.