Indium Isotopes Research Articles

Equilibrium indium isotope fractionation between indium-bearing minerals: Insights from first-principles calculations

Indium (In) is a critical element for electronics and catalysis industries and a volatile metal during planet accretion. Indium isotopes can be used to study cosmochemical and geochemical processes, but no equilibrium indium isotope fractionation factor is available, which restricts our knowledge of indium enrichment and incorporation during geological processes. Here, we investigate the reduced partition function ratios (103lnβ) of 115In/113In in indium-bearing minerals using first-principles calculations. The results show that 103lnβ decreases in the following sequence of dzhalindite > laforetite > roquesite > cadmoindite > Ag-Sn-In-doped sphalerite ≈ Cu-In-doped sphalerite ≈ Cu-Sn-In-doped sphalerite > yixunite > indite > damiaoite > native indium. We found that chemical composition may affect indium isotope fractionation factor in indium-doped sphalerite with Zn/In from 4 to 80 and indium alloys by changing the length of indium bonds. Furthermore, the chemical composition is not only related to the bond length and coordination number (CN) of the target element but also to the electronegativity of other doped elements, which can influence equilibrium indium isotope fractionation. The variation in 103lnβ of indium-doped sphalerites and independent minerals predicts measurable isotopic differences between indium-bearing minerals. The equilibrium indium isotope fractionation factors calculated in this study provide important guides for the potential applications of indium isotopes in geological processes.

First observation of high-spin states in 116In and possible new region of chirality

High-spin states in neutron-rich indium isotope 116In have been observed for the first time by using incomplete fusion of 7Li on a 116Cd target at a beam energy of 42 MeV. A negative-parity band with πg9/2−1⊗νh11/2 configuration and a pair of positive-parity doublet bands with πg9/2−1⊗ν(g7/2/d5/2)h11/22 configurations have been identified. The positive-parity doublet bands are tentatively interpreted as chiral doublet bands, which is supported by the adiabatic and configuration-fixed constrained triaxial relativistic-mean-field and multiparticle plus rotor model calculations. This observation reports a possible new region of chirality in neutron-rich A≈ 120 mass region.

Nuclear moments of indium isotopes reveal abrupt change at magic number 82.

In spite of the high-density and strongly correlated nature of the atomic nucleus, experimental and theoretical evidence suggests that around particular 'magic' numbers of nucleons, nuclear properties are governed by a single unpaired nucleon1,2. A microscopic understanding of the extent of this behaviour and its evolution in neutron-rich nuclei remains an open question in nuclear physics3-5. The indium isotopes are considered a textbook example of this phenomenon6, in which the constancy of their electromagnetic properties indicated that a single unpaired proton hole can provide the identity of a complex many-nucleon system6,7. Here we present precision laser spectroscopy measurements performed to investigate the validity of this simple single-particle picture. Observation of an abrupt change in the dipole moment at N = 82 indicates that, whereas the single-particle picture indeed dominates at neutron magic number N = 82 (refs. 2,8), it does not for previously studied isotopes. To investigate the microscopic origin of these observations, our work provides a combined effort with developments in two complementary nuclear many-body methods: ab initio valence-space in-medium similarity renormalization group and density functional theory (DFT). We find that the inclusion of time-symmetry-breaking mean fields is essential for a correct description of nuclear magnetic properties, which were previously poorly constrained. These experimental and theoretical findings are key to understanding how seemingly simple single-particle phenomena naturally emerge from complex interactions among protons and neutrons.

Evolution of nuclear charge radii in copper and indium isotopes * *Supported by the Reform and Development Project of Beijing Academy of Science and Technology (13001-2110); Supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (12135004, 11635003, 11961141004, 12047513). X. J. is grateful for the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11705118). L.-G. C. is

Systematic trends in nuclear charge radii are of great interest due to universal shell effects and odd-even staggering (OES). The modified root mean square (rms) charge radius formula, which phenomenologically accounts for the formation of neutron-proton (np) correlations, is here applied for the first time to the study of odd-Z copper and indium isotopes. Theoretical results obtained by the relativistic mean field (RMF) model with NL3, PK1 and NL3* parameter sets are compared with experimental data. Our results show that both OES and the abrupt changes across and 82 shell closures are clearly reproduced in nuclear charge radii. The inverted parabolic-like behaviors of rms charge radii can also be described remarkably well between two neutron magic numbers, namely to 50 for copper isotopes and to 82 for indium isotopes. This implies that the np-correlations play an indispensable role in quantitatively determining the fine structures of nuclear charge radii along odd-Z isotopic chains. Also, our conclusions have almost no dependence on the effective forces.

First β -decay spectroscopy of In135 and new β -decay branches of In134

The $\beta$ decay of the neutron-rich $^{134}$In and $^{135}$In was investigated experimentally in order to provide new insights into the nuclear structure of the tin isotopes with magic proton number $Z=50$ above the $N=82$ shell. The $\beta$-delayed $\gamma$-ray spectroscopy measurement was performed at the ISOLDE facility at CERN, where indium isotopes were selectively laser-ionized and on-line mass separated. Three $\beta$-decay branches of $^{134}$In were established, two of which were observed for the first time. Population of neutron-unbound states decaying via $\gamma$ rays was identified in the two daughter nuclei of $^{134}$In, $^{134}$Sn and $^{133}$Sn, at excitation energies exceeding the neutron separation energy by 1 MeV. The $\beta$-delayed one- and two-neutron emission branching ratios of $^{134}$In were determined and compared with theoretical calculations. The $\beta$-delayed one-neutron decay was observed to be dominant $\beta$-decay branch of $^{134}$In even though the Gamow-Teller resonance is located substantially above the two-neutron separation energy of $^{134}$Sn. Transitions following the $\beta$ decay of $^{135}$In are reported for the first time, including $\gamma$ rays tentatively attributed to $^{135}$Sn. In total, six new levels were identified in $^{134}$Sn on the basis of the $\beta \gamma \gamma$ coincidences observed in the $^{134}$In and $^{135}$In $\beta$ decays. A transition that might be a candidate for deexciting the missing neutron single-particle $13/2^+$ state in $^{133}$Sn was observed in both $\beta$ decays and its assignment is discussed. Experimental level schemes of $^{134}$Sn and $^{135}$Sn are compared with shell-model predictions. Using the fast timing technique, half-lives of the $2^+$, $4^+$ and $6^+$ levels in $^{134}$Sn were determined.

Isomer yields in nuclear fission

The generation of angular momentum in the fission process is still an open question. To shed light on this topic, we started a series of measurements at the IGISOL-JYFLTRAP facility in Finland. Highprecision measurements of isomeric yield ratios (IYR) are performed with a Penning trap, partly with the aim to extract average root-mean-square (rms) quantities of fragment spin distributions. The newly installed Phase-Imaging Ion-Cyclotron Resonance (PI-ICR) technique allows the separation of masses down to tens of keV, which is suffcient to disentangle many isomers. In this paper, we first summarize the previous measurements on the neutron and proton-induced fission of uranium and thorium, e.g. the odd cadmium and indium isotopes (119 ≤ A ≤ 127). The measurements revealed systematic trends as function of mass number, which stimulated further exploration. A recent measurement was performed at IGISIOL and several new IYR data will soon be published, for the first time. Secondly, we employ the TALYS nuclear-reaction code to model one of the newly measured isomer yields. Detailed GEF and TALYS calculations are discussed for the fragment angular momentum distribution in 134I.

Development of Novel 111-In-Labelled DOTA Urotensin II Analogues for Targeting the UT Receptor Overexpressed in Solid Tumours.

Overexpression of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in tumours is widely used to develop GPCR-targeting radioligands for solid tumour imaging in the context of diagnosis and even treatment. The human vasoactive neuropeptide urotensin II (hUII), which shares structural analogies with somatostatin, interacts with a single high affinity GPCR named UT. High expression of UT has been reported in several types of human solid tumours from lung, gut, prostate, or breast, suggesting that UT is a valuable novel target to design radiolabelled hUII analogues for cancer diagnosis. In this study, two original urotensinergic analogues were first conjugated to a DOTA chelator via an aminohexanoic acid (Ahx) hydrocarbon linker and then -hUII and DOTA-urantide, complexed to the radioactive metal indium isotope to successfully lead to radiolabelled DOTA-Ahx-hUII and DOTA-Ahx-urantide. The 111In-DOTA-hUII in human plasma revealed that only 30% of the radioligand was degraded after a 3-h period. DOTA-hUII and DOTA-urantide exhibited similar binding affinities as native peptides and relayed calcium mobilization in HEK293 cells expressing recombinant human UT. DOTA-hUII, not DOTA-urantide, was able to promote UT internalization in UT-expressing HEK293 cells, thus indicating that radiolabelled 111In-DOTA-hUII would allow sufficient retention of radioactivity within tumour cells or radiolabelled DOTA-urantide may lead to a persistent binding on UT at the plasma membrane. The potential of these radioligands as candidates to target UT was investigated in adenocarcinoma. We showed that hUII stimulated the migration and proliferation of both human lung A549 and colorectal DLD-1 adenocarcinoma cell lines endogenously expressing UT. In vivo intravenous injection of 111In-DOTA-hUII in C57BL/6 mice revealed modest organ signals, with important retention in kidney. 111In-DOTA-hUII or 111In-DOTA-urantide were also injected in nude mice bearing heterotopic xenografts of lung A549 cells or colorectal DLD-1 cells both expressing UT. The observed significant renal uptake and low tumour/muscle ratio (around 2.5) suggest fast tracer clearance from the organism. Together, DOTA-hUII and DOTA-urantide were successfully radiolabelled with 111Indium, the first one functioning as a UT agonist and the second one as a UT-biased ligand/antagonist. To allow tumour-specific targeting and prolong body distribution in preclinical models bearing some solid tumours, these radiolabelled urotensinergic analogues should be optimized for being used as potential molecular tools for diagnosis imaging or even treatment tools.

Analytic response relativistic coupled-cluster theory: the first application to indium isotope shifts

With increasing demand for accurate calculation of isotope shifts of atomic systems for fundamental and nuclear structure research, an analytic energy derivative approach is presented in the relativistic coupled-cluster (CC) theory framework to determine the atomic field shift and mass shift (MS) factors. This approach allows the determination of expectation values of atomic operators, overcoming fundamental problems that are present in existing atomic physics methods, i.e. it satisfies the Hellmann–Feynman theorem, does not involve any non-terminating series, and is free from choice of any perturbative parameter. As a proof of concept, the developed analytic response relativistic CC theory has been applied to determine MS and field shift factors for different atomic states of indium. High-precision isotope-shift measurements of In were performed in the 246.8 nm (5p 2P3/2 9s 2S1/2) and 246.0 nm (5p 2P1/2 8s 2S1/2) transitions to test our theoretical results. An excellent agreement between the theoretical and measured values is found, which is known to be challenging in multi-electron atoms. The calculated atomic factors allowed an accurate determination of the nuclear charge radii of the ground and isomeric states of the In isotopes, providing an isotone-independent comparison of the absolute charge radii.

Beta Decay of the 134In Nucleus and Properties of N ≥ 81 Odd-Odd Neutron-Rich Indium Isotopes

The beta decay of the 134In nucleus, which is a neutron-rich odd-odd nucleus and which has an anomalously long lifetime, is studied in detail, and an attempt is made to determine its ground-state spin on this basis. The 131Cd → 131In beta-decay process is used as a guideline for finding the required matrix element. An analysis of the features of splitting of the \(\left\{\left(\nu 2 f_{7/ 2} \right)^{n_{\text{odd}}},\left(\pi 1 g_{9 / 2}\right)^{-1}\right\}\) neutron-proton configuration, which is the lowest one and which determines properties of the spectrum of the lowest states of indium isotopes, is also performed for 83 ≤ N ≤ 89 in this connection.

Fissionlike events in the N14+Ta181 system

Absolute cross sections for 22 fissionlike fragments concerning their decay mode via independent and cumulative cross sections have been measured at four projectile energies, i.e., $82.2\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.8,\phantom{\rule{0.28em}{0ex}}79.18\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.82,\phantom{\rule{0.28em}{0ex}}76.8\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}1.2$, and $72.9\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.91\phantom{\rule{0.28em}{0ex}}\mathrm{MeV}$. The recoil-catcher activation technique followed by offline $\ensuremath{\gamma}$-ray spectrometry was employed. The isotopic yield distribution and the variance for indium isotopes have been obtained from the experimental data and were found to be in agreement with the literature values. The fissionlike fragments mass distribution is found to be a single-peaked Gaussian distribution and confirms their population via deexcitation of the compound nucleus. The mass distribution variance is found to be narrower and exponentially increases as compared to relatively heavier systems at above 20% of the Coulomb barrier. A self-consistent approach for determining the isobaric charge dispersion parameters has been adopted. The present paper suggests that fission is one of the competing modes at low energies other than complete fusion and incomplete fusion processes.

Experimental investigation and nuclear model calculations for proton induced reactions on indium around thresholds

Proton reactions with natural indium were found to give biased reaction cross section due to self-induced accompanying neutron-induced reactions in the target. We gave state-of-art and provided original experimental measurement for combined proton- and proton-induced-neutron reactions on indium isotopes. Low-energy protons incident on targets of stacked metallic indium foils were used to investigate the cross section and reaction yield around threshold. Two equivalent targets were designed to compensate the effect of neutron fluctuation in the sample and to swap the energy range below 14 MeV. The presence of significant neutron had been probed through the variation of reaction rate for formation of 116mIn fluence through-out the target foils; 116mIn yield was dependent on the stack arrangement. The interplay between the proton reactions on target isotopes through the 113In(p,n) 113m+gSn, 113In(p,p′) 113mIn, 115In(p,p′) 115mIn, 115In(p,np)114mIn, and 113In(p,3H) 111mIn routes from one side and the reactions of proton-induced-neutrons from the other side alters the experimental results and strengthen the formation of 113m+gSn and 114mIn on the expense of exhausting other reaction products. We stated the experimental values for the apparent reaction cross sections of these reactions in addition to the reaction cross section of short-lived isomeric level of 113mSn (T=121284 s) through the decay gamma-line at 77.38 keV. Nuclear model calculations were performed for all the related reactions and used to adopt our hypothesized values concerning the combined proton- and proton-induced-neutron reaction cross sections. Two resonance states for the reaction 113In(p,3H) 111mIn were identified at 11.51 MeV (Γt=0.961 MeV) and 14.12 MeV (Γt=0.194 MeV).

Metal-isotope-tagged monoclonal antibodies for high-dimensional mass cytometry.

Advances in single-cell mass cytometry have increasingly improved highly multidimensional characterization of immune cell heterogeneity. The immunoassay multiplexing capacity relies on monoclonal antibodies labeled with stable heavy-metal isotopes. To date, a variety of rare-earth elements and noble and post-transition metal isotopes have been used in mass cytometry; nevertheless, the methods used for antibody conjugation differ because of the individual metal coordination chemistries and distinct stabilities of various metal cations. Herein, we provide three optimized protocols for conjugating monoclonal IgG antibodies with 48 high-purity heavy-metal isotopes: (i) 38 isotopes of lanthanides, 2 isotopes of indium, and 1 isotope of yttrium; (ii) 6 isotopes of palladium; and (iii) 1 isotope of bismuth. Bifunctional chelating agents containing coordinative ligands of monomeric DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid) or polymeric pentetic acid (DTPA) were used to stably sequester isotopic cations in aqueous solutions and were subsequently coupled to IgG antibodies using site-specific biorthogonal reactions. Furthermore, quantification methods based on antibody inherent absorption at 280 nm and on extrinsic absorption at 562 nm after staining with bicinchoninic acid (BCA) are reported to determine metal-isotope-tagged antibodies. In addition, a freeze-drying procedure to prepare palladium isotopic mass tags is described. To demonstrate the utility, experiments using six palladium-tagged CD45 antibodies for barcoding assays of live immune cells in cytometry by time-of-flight (CyTOF) are described. Conjugation of pure isotopes of lanthanides, indium, or yttrium takes ~3.5 h. Conjugation of bismuth takes ~4 h. Preparation of palladium mass tags takes ~8 h. Conjugation of pure isotopes of palladium takes ~2.5 h. Antibody titration takes ~4 h.

New high-spin structure and possible chirality in In109

High-spin structure of $^{109}$In has been investigated with the $^{100}$Mo($^{14}$N, 5$n$)$^{109}$In reaction at a beam energy of 78 MeV using the in-beam $\gamma$ spectroscopic method. The level scheme of $^{109}$In has been modified considerably and extended by 46 new $\gamma$-rays to the highest excited state at 8.979 MeV and $J^{\pi}$=(45/2$^{+}$). The new level scheme consists of eight bands, six of which are identified as dipole bands. The configurations have been tentatively assigned with the help of the systematics of neighboring odd-$A$ indium isotopes and the experimental aligned angular momenta. The dipole bands are then compared with the titled axis cranking calculation in the framework of covariant density function theory (TAC-CDFT). The results of theoretical calculation based on the configurations, which involve one proton hole at the $g_{9/2}$ orbital and two or four unpaired neutrons at $g_{7/2}$, $d_{5/2}$ and $h_{11/2}$ orbitals, show that the shape of $^{109}$In undergoes an evolution on both $\beta$ and $\gamma$ deformations and possible chirality is suggested in $^{109}$In.

Radioactive ion beams of 111In using ECR plasma sputtering method.

Radioactive ion beams of 111In (indium-111, half-life 2.8 days) have been produced using the plasma sputtering method in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) ion source at the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre RIB facility. Indium isotopes were first produced by bombarding a natural silver target with a 32 MeV, 40 μA alpha particle beam from the K-130 cyclotron. After radio-chemical separation, about 25 mCi In-chloride was deposited on an aluminum electrode and inserted in the plasma chamber of the ECR. Indium ions produced by ion induced sputtering in the plasma were extracted from the ion source, isotopically separated, and a pure 111In beam was measured at the focal plane of the separator. The measured 111In beam intensity was 2.67 × 105 particles/s for a beam energy of 5 keV.

Improvement of gross theory of beta-decay for application to nuclear data

A theoretical study of β decay and delayed neutron has been carried out with a global β-decay model, the gross theory. The gross theory is based on a consideration of the sum rule of the β-strength function, and gives reasonable results of β-decay rates and delayed neutron in the entire nuclear mass region. In a fissioning nucleus, neutrons are produced by β decay of neutron-rich fission fragments from actinides known as delayed neutrons. The average number of delayed neutrons is estimated based on the sum of the β-delayed neutron-emission probabilities multiplied by the cumulative fission yield for each nucleus. Such a behavior is important to manipulate nuclear reactors, and when we adopt some new high-burn-up reactors, properties of minor actinides will play an important roll in the system, but these data have not been sufficient. We re-analyze and improve the gross theory. For example, we considered the parity of neutrons and protons at the Fermi surface, and treat a suppression for the allowed transitions in the framework of the gross theory. By using the improved gross theory, underestimated half-lives in the neutron-rich indium isotopes and neighboring region increase, and consequently follow experimental trend. The ability of reproduction (and also prediction) of the β-decay rates, delayed-neutron emission probabilities is discussed. With this work, we have described the development of a programming code of the gross theory of β-decay including the improved parts. After preparation finished, this code can be released for the nuclear data community.

H2CHXdedpa and H4CHXoctapa-chiral acyclic chelating ligands for (67/68)Ga and (111)In radiopharmaceuticals.

The chiral acyclic ligands H2CHXdedpa (N4O2), H2CHXdedpa-bb (N4O2), and H4CHXoctapa (N4O4) (CHX = cyclohexyl/cyclohexane, H2dedpa = 1,2-[[6-carboxy-pyridin-2-yl]-methylamino]ethane, bb = N,N'-dibenzylated, H4octapa = N,N'-bis(6-carboxy-2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid) were synthesized, complexed with Ga(III) and/or In(III), and evaluated for their potential as chelating agents in radiopharmaceutical applications. The ligands were compared to the previously studied hexadentate H2dedpa and octadentate H4octapa ligands to determine the effect adding a chiral 1R,2R-trans-cyclohexane to replace the ethylenediamine backbone would have on metal complex stability and radiolabeling kinetics. It was found that [Ga(CHXdedpa)](+) showed very similar properties to those of [Ga(dedpa)](+), with only one isomer in solution observed by NMR spectroscopy, and minimal structural changes in the solid-state X-ray structure. Like [Ga(dedpa)](+), [Ga(CHXdedpa)](+) exhibited exceptionally high thermodynamic stability constants (log KML = 28.11(8)), and the chelate retained the ability to label (67)Ga quantitatively in 10 min at room temperature at ligand concentrations of 1 × 10(-5) M. In vitro kinetic inertness assays demonstrated the [(67)Ga(CHXdedpa)](+) complex to be more stable than [(67)Ga(dedpa)](+) in a human serum competition, with 90.5% and 77.8% of (67)Ga remaining chelate-bound after 2 h, respectively. Preliminary coordination studies of H4CHXoctapa with In(III) demonstrated [In(CHXoctapa)](-) to have an equivalently high thermodynamically stable constant as [In(octapa)](-), with log KML values of 27.16(9) and 26.76(14), respectively. The [(111)In(CHXoctapa)](-) complex showed exceptionally high in vitro kinetic inertness over 120 h in human serum, comparing well with previously reported [(111)In(octapa)](-) values, and an improved stability compared to the current industry "gold standards" 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA). Initial investigations reveal that the chiral acyclic hexadentate H2CHXdedpa and octadentate H4CHXoctapa ligands are ideal candidates for radiopharmaceutical elaboration of gallium or indium isotopes, respectively.

Isomeric states in neutron-rich 129In and the πg−19/2 ⊗ vh−111/2 multiplet

Within the RISING stopped beam campaign the neutron-rich indium isotopes with masses A=125-130 have been studied using the method of isomer spectroscopy. The decays of several isomeric states have been observed and here we compare our results for 129In to previous measurements for this nucleus. The isomeric states were populated in the fragmentation of a 136Xe beam at 750 MeV/u and in the relativistic fission of a 238U beam at 650 MeV/u at the accelerator facility GSI (Darmstadt, Germany).

A pulse coherent nqr spectrometer with effective transient suppression

The presence of the quadrupole moments of isotopes of gallium and indium in GaSe and InSe allows applying the radiospectroscopy of nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) for studying of the crystal structures of these compounds.The structure of the pulse coherent spectrometer with a minimum number of functional nodes is proposed.The source of carrier frequency, oscillations is the frequency synthesizer for filling the probe pulses in the range of NQR resonance frequencies 2 ÷ 50 MHz (isotopes 14N, 69Ga, 71Ga, 113In, 115In). The nuclear spin induction signal after the amplification is fed to a synchronous detector, made on the balanced mixer. The output power amplifier on the field-effect transistor MRF6VP11KH develops an excitation pulse power up to 1 kW in the receiving coil. Restoration of the NQR spectrum of the spin induction signal is carried out by the fast Fourier transform method.The circuit solutions on the elimination of the receiving coil "ringing" of oscillating circuit of spectrometer and transient suppression in the receive path of the NQR pulse radio spectrometer are proposed. Safe closing of the receive path in the pauses between probe pulses (up to 100 dB for the carrier frequency) is provided by the scheme of three similar cascades on the dual-gate FET.

Separation of Gallium and Indium Isotopes by Cation and Anion Exchange Chromatography

Ion exchange chromatography was applied to study chemical isotope effects of gallium and indium in ligand exchange reactions. A strongly acidic cation and a strongly basic anion exchange resin were used as a solid phase, and aqueous HCl as a liquid phase. On the cation exchanger, the light isotope 69Ga was enriched at the front part of the elution band and the heavy isotope 71Ga at the end part. Instead, the light 113In isotope was enriched at the end part, and the heavy isotope 115In at the front part. The isotope separation factor ϵ is equal to 3.3 × 10–5 for gallium and 2.0 × 10–4 for indium. On the anion exchanger, the heavy gallium isotope was enriched at the front part, whereas the heavy indium isotope at the end part of the band, with ϵ equal to ∼10–3 and 1.7 × 10–4, respectively. This pattern of enrichment is caused by stronger Ga3+–OH2 than Ga3+–Cl− bond, and by inverse order of bond strength for indium. In the displacement method, gallium and indium on anion exchanger also show opposite enrichment of their isotopes, but the ϵ values (1.5 × 10–2 for gallium and 5 × 10–3 for indium) are greater than those found in the elution method, probably due to much higher concentrations of the metals.

Investigation of the exitation of isomeric states for indium isotopes in the reactions (γ, γ<sup>′</sup>), (γ, n)

Investigation of the exitation of isomeric states for indium isotopes in the reactions (γ, γ<sup>′</sup>), (γ, n)