Brazilian Native Research Articles

Whispers of genocide: racist and colonial legal practices of the Brazilian dictatorship towards Indigenous peoples

ABSTRACT Towards the end of the 1960s, as accusations of genocide against Brazil appeared in several national and international newspapers, a sense of growing unrest crept into the military dictatorship. In 1968, the United Nations organised the First International Conference on Human Rights in Tehran. The dictatorship’s legal argumentation was based on an assimilationist orientation directed at ‘civilizing’ the Indigenous population and ignoring genocide allegations. The military regime intertwined a tradition of civilising mission with an authoritarian ideology of national unity to produce racist and colonial legal practices towards Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Reports of genocide caused quite a stir among activists and academics, but the Tehran episode also illustrates how events unfolding in international arenas such as the Conference did not substantially vex the Brazilian dictatorship. Exactly seven months after the meeting, the regime passed the Institutional Act 5, which inaugurated the most repressive years of its history. To subsidise such points, we review documents found in the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Archaeology and a case of genocide: the ‘indigenous prisons’ of Minas Gerais, Brazil

ABSTRACT A 2021 sentence condemned a retired Major of the Military Police of Minas Gerais on charges of genocide against the Krenak people. Between 1969 and 1979, that state’s Military Police established two prisons of exception. The sentence is crucial on the grounds of the enormous human and cultural damage endured by the indigenous peoples of Brazil during the Military Dictatorship of 1964–1985, as established by the Brazilian Truth Commission. This paper discusses an archaeological and anthropological approach to the conditions prevailing at these prisons and attested by some of its survivors. By addressing their form of internment, the slave labour and torture committed at them, this paper will discuss the extent to which such prisons can be considered concentration camps. This article on their archaeological study hopes to make a useful contribution to the archaeology of repression and resistance to that dictatorship.

Bioguided isolation of anti-inflammatory and anti-urolithiatic active compounds from the decoction of Cissus gongylodes leaves

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe Cissus gongylodes has traditionally been used in the diet of indigenous people in Brazil and in traditional medicine for kidney stone removal and inflammatory diseases. The active compounds responsible for these pharmacological activities are unknown. Aim of the StudyThis study aims to isolate, for the first time, the compounds in the decoction of C. gongylodes leaves responsible for their anti-inflammatory and anti-urolithiatic ethnopharmacological properties. Materials and MethodsThe most active fractions of the C. gongylodes leaf decoction were fractionated using SPE-C18 and the compounds were purified through HPLC-UV-DAD. The decoction fractions and isolated compounds were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory and anti-urolithiatic activities. The anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using an ex vivo assay in human blood induced by LPS and calcium ionophore, measuring inflammatory mediators, PGE2 and LTB4. The anti-urolithiatic activity was evaluated using an in vitro experimental model with human urine to determine the dissolution of the most recurrent calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals. Additionally, the decoction was chemically characterized through metabolomic analysis using UHPLC-ESI-HRMS. ResultsThe isolated compounds from the decoction of C. gongylodes, including rutin, eriodictyol 3’-O-glycoside, and isoquercetin, have demonstrated significant multi-target actions. These components act as anti-inflammatory agents by inhibiting the release of main inflammatory mediators, PGE2 and LTB4. Additionally, they exhibit anti-urolithiatic properties, promoting the dissolution of calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals. Furthermore, the characterization of the decoction by UHPLC-ESI-HRMS revealed a high content of flavonoids, mainly glycosylated flavonoids. ConclusionsThe results support the traditional use of C. gongylodes decoction, identifying the compounds responsible for its anti-inflammatory and anti-urolithiatic effects. The decoction fractions and isolated compounds exhibited dual anti-inflammatory activity, effectively inhibiting key inflammatory pathways and potentially presenting fewer adverse effects while also promoting the dissolution of CaOx crystals associated with urolithiasis. The multi-target action displayed by C. gongylodes is particularly desirable in the treatment of urolithiasis, as inflammation and PGE2 production precede and contribute to the formation of CaOx crystals in the kidneys. Based on these actions, C. gongylodes emerges as a potent source of active compounds for the development of new treatments for urolithiasis.

PROBLEMA DE DESPLACAMENTO CERÂMICO EM OBRAS VERTICAIS

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Brazilian indigenous peoples already practiced the use of ceramic production in an advanced way. Ceramic tiles can be found in different forms, such as floors, tiles, and tiles, and are available in a variety of colors, textures, and patterns, allowing for extensive customization of spaces. These materials are especially popular in areas such as kitchens, bathrooms, and outdoor spaces, where water and wear resistance are crucial. In addition, ceramic coating is a good thermal and acoustic insulator, contributing to the comfort of environments. Thus, this article aims to show the reader the importance of quality in the process of performing the service to avoid the inconvenience caused by the fact of the detachment. The research began through a literature review of the main authors on the subject of displacement. Based on studies carried out through articles, monographs, dissertations, theses, among others, it is clear that the peeling of tiles or ceramics is considered the most common and serious problem in civil construction and its cause is the most varied. Therefore, it is concluded that the main causes of ceramic peeling is nothing more than a defect in the system that did not allow the correct adhesion between the plates, the mortar and the wall or floor, causing the pieces to detach.

Prevalence and associated factors of chronic kidney disease among Truká Indigenous adults in Cabrobó, Brazil: a population-based study

The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasing worldwide, especially in developing countries, due to factors such as lifestyle changes and the rise of non-communicable diseases. Populations living in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas are subject to a higher burden of CKD. However, the burden of CKD on Brazilian Indigenous people, especially those undergoing an advanced urbanisation process, has not yet been described. This cross-sectional study included 1715 Truká Indigenous adults from Cabrobó, Brazil. CKD was defined according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes guidelines classification as a urinary albumin/creatinine ratio ≥30mg/g and/or an estimated glomerular filtration rate <60mL/min/1.73m2. Univariate and multiple logistic regression models were used to evaluate factors associated with CKD. Odds ratio (OR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to measure association. Out of the 1654 participants analysed (61 excluded due to missing data), the prevalence of CKD was 10% (95% CI, 8.6%-11.5%), with a higher prevalence in women compared to men (12.4% versus 6.9%, p<0.001). The mean age was 40.5 years, with 55.6% being women. In univariate analysis, female sex (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.3-2.7), age ≥60 years (OR, 4.6; 95% CI, 3.2-6.6), cardiovascular disease (OR, 2.1; 95% CI, 1.1-4.1), and dyslipidemia (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.4) were identified as associated factors with CKD. Multiple logistic regression analysis identified age ≥60 years, female sex, and dyslipidemia as independently associated factors with CKD. The prevalence of CKD among Truká Indigenous adults analysed is high and affects a higher proportion of women. Our study found no association between hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and CKD risk, despite their high prevalence. These findings assist in developing early CKD detection strategies in Brazilian Indigenous communities, supporting disease treatment and prevention. National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq)-Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation of Brazil, and the Maria Emília Foundation.

Brazilian version of the “Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome - Quality of Life questionnaire (PSS-QoL)”: translation, cross-cultural adaptation and validation

BackgroundThe Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome Quality of Life questionnaire (PSS-QoL) is the first specific instrument to assess health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in Sjögren’s disease (SjD). The aim is to translate and cross-culturally adapt the PSS-QoL into Brazilian Portuguese and to evaluate its psychometric properties.MethodsThe original English version was translated into Brazilian Portuguese by two native Brazilians who were proficient in the English language. The retranslation was conducted by two native Americans proficient in Brazilian Portuguese. A committee undertook an analysis of the translated and retranslated versions, resulting in the generation of the first Brazilian version, which was submitted to the cross-cultural adaptation phase. In this phase, 50 participants with SjD responded to the instrument in Stages I and II, resulting in the generation of the second and final Brazilian version. To assess the psychometric properties, demographic and clinical data were collected from 75 patients. The HRQoL questionnaires (final Brazilian version of the PSS-QoL, Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36) and EuroQoL-5 dimension (EQ-5D)) were completed. Construct validity was analyzed using the Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficient. Reliability was analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha and the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC).ResultsEight questions and one response item were revised due to an incomprehension rate of greater than 15% among the participants in the cross-cultural adaptation phase. The final Brazilian version of the PSS-QoL was validated, revealing a high correlation between the total score and functional capacity (r= −0.713, p < 0.001), and vitality (r= −0.770, p < 0. 001) and mental health (r= −0.742, p < 0.001) domains of the SF-36 and a moderate correlation with the other domains of the SF-36 and a moderate correlation with the EQ-5D-tto (r= −0.573, p < 0.001), and EQ-5D-VAS (r= −0.559, p < 0.001). The intraobserver (ICC = 0.939; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.964) and interobserver (ICC = 0.965; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.964) reliability of the total score showed very high consistency.ConclusionThe Brazilian version of the PSS-QoL has been demonstrated to be a valid and reproducible instrument for the assessment of HRQoL in patients with SjD.

Nature portrayed in images in Dutch Brazil: Tracing the sources of the plant woodcuts in the Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (1648).

By the mid-seventeenth century, images of natural elements that originated in Dutch Brazil circulated in Europe. These were often included in art collections (the Libri Picturati) and natural history treatises (the Historia Naturalis Brasiliae and the India Utriesque re Naturale et Medica, 1658). The plant woodcut images in these books constituted (icono) type specimens and played a significant role in disseminating scientific botanical knowledge. We present a systematic analysis of their origins by cross-referencing the visual and textual sources related to Dutch Brazil. To do so, we used our previous botanical identifications of the portrayed plants, published sources, and digital archival material. The plant woodcuts accounted for 529 images, which corresponded to 426 taxa. We created a PDF booklet to visualize the (dis-) similarities of the woodcuts with the Libri Picturati and other visual sources. Substantial differences in the visual-making methodology exist between the two treatises (1648, 1658). In the first book, most of the images were available from Dutch Brazil and carved into the woodcuts, while most of these woodcuts were reused in the second one. The Indigenous Tupi-based plant names accompanying the images were crucial when arranging the sources, and portraying as much botanical information as possible was commonly the goal. Freshly picked, living plants, dried branches, fruits, and seeds were used to represent the megadiverse Brazilian flora, even when these belonged to species originating from other regions. Despite not being recognized for their contribution, Indigenous Brazilians and enslaved Africans were essential in the visual knowledge-making processes that later resulted in these natural history collections. As several sources remain lost and many histories yet untold, further archival studies and collaborative projects are pertinent to reveal the missing pieces of this conundrum.

Framing the Yanomami: decolonial analysis of U.S coverage of Indigenous people in Brazil during COVID-19

ABSTRACT Mainstream news coverage in the U.S. of Indigenous people and the issues that threaten their survival has largely validated misconceptions rooted in colonial views and discourses dependent on harmful stereotypes. This study employs a qualitative thematic analysis of 32 articles from the New York Times and the Associated Press using a decolonial lens to investigate how U.S. news outlets framed the Yanomami people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings focus on four main frames that we identified among the news stories: (1) victimization and vulnerability, (2) illegal mining and policing, (3) environmental impact, and (4) Indigenous sovereignty. We discuss how these frames reinforce the colonial gaze, which continue to shape public knowledge, attitudes, and policymaking about Indigenous people globally, and how these findings contribute to theorizing about the role of media in Indigenous political representation.

Colonisation and Jesuit Education in Brazil

ABSTRACT The Portuguese policies of colonisation and Christianisation were closely linked. In 1549, the Portuguese monarchy adopted Catholicism as the official religion of the colonial administration and requested that the Society of Jesus establish the Catholic faith among the indigenous people in Brazil. The Jesuits established catechesis, founded the first schools and exercised a long-lasting hegemony on Brazilian education (1549–1759). The Ratio Studiorum was the uniform method adopted worldwide by the Jesuits. However, this article shows that improvisations were employed to convert the entire population to Christianity. The dialectical exchange between imposition and adaptation had lasting repercussions on Brazilian culture. In addition, the following consequences should be noted: (1) currently, Brazil is the country with the largest Catholic population in the world; (2) Christianity has had a lasting influence on pedagogical thinking in Brazil.

Seroprevalence of Treponema pallidum infection in Brazilian indigenous people: a cross-sectional study

Indigenous communities in Brazil have a complex epidemiological profile, which increases their chances of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. However, limited data is available on Treponema pallidum infections in this population. We investigated the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with T. pallidum infection in an indigenous population of Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul. Blood samples were collected from September 2017 to March 2020, and the participants were interviewed to obtain comprehensive data on demography and sexual behavior. Serological tests were performed to detect T. pallidum infection. Besides conducting descriptive analysis, we performed Chi-squared tests and determined the bivariate odds ratio. The data were also analyzed using logistic regression. Among the 2190 invited individuals, 1927 (88%) were included in this study. The seroprevalence of T. pallidum infection was 2.91%. The results of a multivariate analysis showed that individuals who were 30–39 years old, with up to 4 years of school education, living in households without piped water, with a history of genital lesions, multiple sexual partners, and having a history of STIs had the highest seroprevalence of T. pallidum. This study showed that behavioral, social, and economic factors play an important role in the transmission of T. pallidum within the indigenous population. Thus, targeted intervention, including imparting education in the native language, mass testing initiatives, and implementing public policies to improve socioeconomic indicators, is needed to reduce the cases of syphilis in this community.

Fourteen-year trends in overweight, general obesity, and abdominal obesity in Amazonian indigenous peoples.

Available data show that the epidemiological profile of most indigenous Brazilian populations is characterized by the coexistence of long-standing health problems (high prevalence of infectious and parasitic diseases, malnutrition, and deficiency diseases, such as anemia in children and women of reproductive age), associated with new health problems, especially those related to obesity (hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia). Based on this scenario, this study analyzed the nutritional profile of the adult population of seven indigenous peoples from the Brazilian Amazon in the years 2007 and 2021. A total of 598 adults individuals were analyzed in 2007 (319 women and 279 men) and 924 in 2021 (483 women and 441 men), from seven indigenous peoples located in the state of Pará, who were assisted during health actions carried out in 2007 and in 2021. Body mass index classification used the World Health Organization criteria for adults: low weight, < 18.5kg/m2; normal weight, ≥ 18.5 and < 25kg/m2); overweight, ≥ 25 and < 30kg/m2, and obesity, ≥ 30kg/m2. A waist circumference (WC) < 90cm in men and < 80cm in women was considered normal. The data revealed heterogeneous anthropometric profiles, with a low prevalence of nutritional changes in the Araweté, Arara and Parakanã peoples, and high proportions of excess weight and abdominal obesity in the Kararaô, Xikrin do Bacajá, Asurini do Xingu and Gavião peoples, similar to or even higher than the national averages. Different stages of nutritional transition were identified in the indigenous peoples analyzed, despite apparently having been subjected to the same environmental pressures that shaped their nutritional profile in recent decades, which may indicate different genetic susceptibilities to nutritional changes. The evidence shown in this study strongly suggests the need to investigate in greater depth the genetic and environmental factors associated with the nutritional profile of Brazilian indigenous peoples, with assessment of diet, physical activity and sociodemographic and socioeconomic variables that enable the development of appropriate prevention and monitoring measures.

Indigenous agriculture in Brazil: review (2011-2021)

Modern agricultural practices have caused severe impacts on nature, especially in traditional communities such as indigenous peoples, leading to the loss of knowledge about traditional agriculture. The objective of this study was to carry out a bibliographical survey of works on indigenous agriculture in Brazil in the period between 2011 and 2021. Papers in the form of thesis, dissertations and abstracts were excluded, as well as articles that, despite including the term indigenous agriculture in the text, did not address the subject as the main theme. The selected articles were analyzed in order to determine the main agricultural practices used by indigenous people in Brazil. Data analysis took place in a qualitative manner. The analyzed studies covered 69 ethnic groups and 87 ethnospecies were used in in their agriculture. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) stood out as the most important species. The plantations are established in backyards, on the outskirts of the village or in coivara (slash-and-burn) fields. The choice of location for the fields and the planting of species are based on the traditional knowledge of each ethnic group. Cutting, burning, planting, cleaning, and harvesting actions are generally governed by the seasons. Religious influences are also cited in some ethnicities. The analysis of the word cloud presents the main themes addressed in the publications and demonstrates the undeniable link between issues involving the environment and the traditional knowledge when the central theme is indigenous peoples. The works suggest that many ethnic groups preserve their traditional agricultural practices, however the influence and changes caused by the arrival of modern agriculture are also perceived and caused an impact on the eating habits of several ethnic groups.

Mass Atrocities against Indigenous Peoples: Atrocity Structure and the Brazilian Amazon under Bolsonaro

Abstract Throughout the four years of his presidency, President Jair Bolsonaro implemented policies, sponsored initiatives, and promoted discourses that were fundamentally detrimental to indigenous peoples in Brazil. This resulted in the most acute and irreconcilable disparity in interests between settlers and indigenous communities over the control of land in the Amazon, a dispute which is at the core of the eruption of the anti-indigenous atrocity structure existent in Brazil in the 21st century. As a result, the Amazonian indigenous peoples were victims of several mass atrocities, consisting of destructive, exterminatory, persecutory, and other inhumane acts, especially through invasion, deforestation, contamination, and deprivation of health care. This article explains and analyses each pillar of this atrocious process.

An update review on monoterpene indole alkaloids and biological activities of Tabernaemontana species occurring in Brazil

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe Tabernaemontana genus belongs to the Apocynaceae family of which 30 species are found in Brazil. Some Tabernaemontana species are used by Brazilian indigenous people and other communities, or are listed in the Yanomami Pharmacopeia. Ethnopharmacological data include use(s) for muscle problems, depressed sternum, back pain, abscess, indigestion, eye irritation, earache, itching, vaginal discharge, as an aid for older people who are slow and forgetful, mosquito and snake bites, infection by the human botfly larvae, calmative, and fever. Obviously, many of these uses are attributed to the alkaloids found in Tabernaemontana species. Aim of the reviewThe aim is to gather information on Tabernaemontana species occurring in Brazil, as sources of monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs). In addition, we aim to collect reported experimental demonstrations of their biological activity, which may provide the foundation for further studies, including phytochemistry, the development of medicinal agents, and validation of phytopreparations. Material and methodsThe Brazilian Flora 2020 database was used as source for Tabernamontana species occurring in Brazil. The literature review on these species was collected from Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Scifinder. The keywords included names and synonyms of Tabernaemontana species found in Brazil, which were validated by the Word Flora Online Plant List. ResultsA literature survey covering the time frame from 1960 until June 2023 resulted in 121 MIAs, including 48 not yet reported in the last review published in 2016. Some alkaloid extracts, fractions, and isolated alkaloids present evidenced biological activity, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, and against snake venoms, among others. Notably, ethnopharmacological based information has been the basis of some reports on Tabernaemontana species. ConclusionsOur literature survey shows that Tabernaemontana species present bioactive MIAs, such as voacamine and affinisine, demonstrating significant cytotoxicity activity against several tumoral cell lines. Those compounds can be considered promising candidates in the search for new anticancer drugs. However, the Amazonian plant biome is increasingly damaged, which may lead to the extinction of biological diversity. This threat may also affect Tabernaemontana species, which have scarcely been investigated regarding the potential of their phytochemicals for the development of new drugs.

THE DISCOURSE ABOUT THE INDIGENOUS: DISCURSIVE ANALYSIS OF POSTS AND COMMENTS ON FACEBOOK IN TIMES OF PANDEMIC IN IPIXUNA-AM

This work falls within the field of Materialist Discourse Analysis (AD) and its general objective is to analyze posts and comments made on the social network Facebook about the Kulina indigenous people of the municipality of Ipixuna-AM, during the Covid-19 pandemic, more specifically in the period in which the first cases of the disease were recorded in that municipality, in order to identify which discourses are materialized in these texts and the effects of meanings produced there on the aforementioned subjects. To this end, we consider it necessary to describe the conditions of discursive production of these texts, in addition to verifying the subject positions assumed there, with the aim of identifying which discourses appear in the significant materiality of the texts, that is, in the posts and comments published on Facebook. With a view to achieving these objectives, we present the theoretical bases of AD, based on Pêcheux (2009), Althusser (1974), Orlandi (2013) and others, concerning the concepts of language, ideology, subject, discourse, among others, such as are understood in the theory of materialist discourse. We also present the analysis procedures, a brief historical contextualization of the space and the research subjects and finally we undertake the analysis itself, which pointed out the prominent presence of a discourse in the analyzed speeches: the discourse about the indigenous from the colonizer's perspective , responsible for an official version of Brazil's history that has been told and reproduced discursively. These traditional narratives told by official History about the historical presence of indigenous people in Brazil contribute to the maintenance of this calcified imaginary about them and which came to the surface in the texts analyzed here.

Prevalence and Spatial Autocorrelation of Tuberculosis in Indigenous People in Brazil, 2002-2022.

Tuberculosis (TB) among indigenous populations in Brazil poses a multifaceted public health challenge influenced by geographical, social, institutional, economic, and cultural factors. This study scrutinized the prevalence and spatial distribution of TB among Brazilian indigenous communities from 2002 to 2022. Employing a cross-sectional and descriptive approach, we analyzed data from the Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN) and conducted spatial autocorrelation tests to identify clusters and outliers. The findings uncovered substantial disparities in TB prevalence between the North and Central-West regions, in contrast to the South and Southeast, mirroring social, economic, and cultural inequalities in Brazil. It is concluded that public health strategies should not only consider the epidemiological aspects of TB but also encompass social and environmental determinants, notably the impact of climate change. Holistic and context-sensitive approaches are imperative for addressing TB within indigenous communities, underscoring the need for adaptive and culturally sensitive interventions in the public health landscape.

Research in social anthropology with indigenous peoples in Brazil and the study of social anthropology with autochthonous peoples in the context of Brazil and other National States: Australia, Canada, and Argentina

The text, “Research in social anthropology with indigenous peoples in Brazil and the study of social anthropology with autochthonous peoples in the context of Brazil and other National States: Australia, Canada, and Argentina”, aims, following the profile of this section of the Anuário Antropológico, to publicize the contributions to the Programme through a brief account of my own trajectory at the PPGAS/DAN/UnB. I begin with the period in which I was a student of the first PhD group, between 1981 and 1988 under the academic direction of Professor Julio Cezar Melatti, period in which I gained a background on the style of social anthropology with indigenous peoples that is undertaken in Brazil, and over thirty-five years, since 1989, as a professor of the DAN and as a CNPq researcher. In the latter period, I collaborated, initially, in two research projects coordinated by Professor Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira, on Styles of Anthropology in National Contexts, and later focusing on Nationality and Ethnicity on Borders. In both cases, I focused my attention on social anthropology with indigenous societies, in Brazil and in other national states – Australia since 1992, Canada since 1995, and more recently Argentina since 2016. On the research line about nationality and ethnicity on borders, I started in 2000, examining the Macushi and Wapishana peoples on the Brazil-Guyana border and, since 2008, my research has included work on the criminalisation of indigenous peoples in the prison system of Roraima. This article aims to highlight the most relevant aspects of my academic production in the discipline, in theoretical and methodological terms, according to my own assessment, and also to demonstrate how the existing academic environment at the PPGAS fosters the development and improvement of practices of the production of knowledge.

THE BLOOD AND ALCHEMY OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE BRAZILIAN PEOPLE: THE BLOOD OF THE ANCESTORS, THE BLOOD OF CHILDBIRTH AND THE BLOOD OF COMMUNION

This work, based on Carl Gustav Jung's depth psychology, looks at blood as an alchemical element of the body and soul that connects us to our roots, to our ancestors, to the original peoples, connecting us both as individuals and as a Brazilian people. By delving into the symbolism of blood and understanding its relationship with the formation and identity of the Brazilian people, some memories will be pointed out regarding the history of the Brazilian people, from the beginning of the colonization process by the white European people, as well as how the Brazilian people were born, the quality of the bonds and relationships between the indigenous original peoples and the Portuguese from the 16th century to the present day, relating some stories that reveal, today, the conflicts over the demarcation of lands and the protection of indigenous peoples in Brazil. Blood, as a living element that constitutes and connects us, will also be approached from the point of view of indigenous mythology, through the narrative of the story of Kamé and Kairú, of the meeting between the Sun and the Moon from the point of view of the Kaingang people. For the alchemical integration of these processes between blood and the individual and collective psyche, the symbolism of blood in the chalice, the blood of communion, will be the alchemical vessel for combining the parts studied here, in order to create awareness and transformation through the process of individuation.

Racism and Indigenous Peoples in Brazil: A Scoping Review

Racism and Indigenous Peoples in Brazil: A Scoping Review

The Private as a Core Part of International Law: The School of Salamanca, Slavery, and Marriage (Sixteenth Century)

In “Gender and the Lost Private Side of International Law,” Karen Knop argued that “recuperating private international law as a lost side of international law can open up counter-disciplinary research on gender in the history of international law.”1 In this essay, I use Knop's argument to revisit our understanding of the sixteen century “School of Salamanca”2 and its importance for international legal history from a gender perspective. I focus on the practice of jurists and theologians associated with the School of Salamanca in assessing the validity of marriages of newly converted Indigenous peoples in Brazil (negros da terra), and later the validity of remarriages of Indigenous people and enslaved Africans (negros da Guiné) who had already been married in places from which they had been forcibly removed.3 To do this, these jurists and theologians engaged in private international law (or conflict of laws) reasoning. A key question involved determining what law governed each marriage—was it ius gentium, natural law, or canon law? Examining their arguments, I argue, offers an instance of Knop's insight that recuperating private international law allows us to redress the invisibility of women in the history of international law. In my case study, not only do we better understand “how power operates through international legal concepts and institutions”4 in the private sphere of the family in the colonies, but also, and crucially, how “private international law make[s] visible the effects of colonial . . . law on gender relations and national identity at home,”5 to borrow Knop's words.