Indigenous Language Revitalization Research Articles

Who is the language policy for? Translation discrepancies and their implications to (dis)trust

This paper investigates the impact of language policy translation as a discursive action on historical and political mechanisms of trust within the context of Indigenous language revitalization in Taiwan. Combining a critical discourse studies approach and translation theories, we examine the translation discrepancies between the Chinese source text and the English translation of Tawain’s Indigenous Language Development Act (2017). We focus on the analysis of the interpersonal meanings conveyed by two Chinese modal verbs (ying/應 and de/得), aiming to elucidate how Taiwan’s Government positions itself within both language versions. The findings suggest that the government constructs itself as more actively responsible for the Indigenous language development in the English version. This strategic move reflects the government’s commitment to enhancing Taiwan’s international reputation as the English version is meant for global audiences. Considering language policy is inherently ideological with the government’s political intentions, we discuss the implication of distrust created by the translation discrepancy. This study highlights that language policy translation can be recontextualized to suit a government’s political agendas and ideological appropriations.

The Perceptions of Indigenous Language and Cultural Synergy in Ghana and Sierra Leone: A Cross-Cultural Study

This study examined how young people perceive the revitalization of indigenous languages in multicultural environments. The research team gathered data from a stratified random sample of 200 participants hailing from diverse rural and urban areas in Ghana and Sierra Leone. Employing a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the study employed questionnaires and interviews to gauge local community perceptions toward indigenous language revitalization in Ghana and Sierra Leone. The team also conducted focus groups to gain qualitative insights. The two data sets were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, as well as thematic qualitative analysis to reveal the perspectives of study participants on the importance of indigenous language in maintaining cultural legacy. The findings underscored the significance of indigenous languages beyond communication, emphasizing their exposure to external threats such as cultural assimilation and the dominance of foreign languages. The research team calls on the Ministries in charge of culture in Ghana and Sierra Leone to prioritize initiatives aimed at recovering and safeguarding indigenous languages, as a critical step for cultural transmission and preservation. Keywords: Native Culture, Linguistic Traditions, Cultural Ecosystems, Language, Indigenous Languages, Cultural Synergy

Ē-pī-wīcihtāsowin ahpō ē-pī-wīchisowin: non-indigenous learners in Indigenous language-learning spaces

ABSTRACT This paper contributes to ongoing conversations on the contextual differences and considerations between learning an Indigenous language as a member of an Indigenous nation or community and learning an Indigenous language as a non-Indigenous person (Albury, 2015; Berardi-Wiltshire & Bortolotto, 2022; May 2023; O’Toole, 2020; Te Huia, 2020). While we see value in considering how non-Indigenous Canadians can positively contribute to Indigenous language revitalization efforts, we also want to consider the consequences of that involvement for Indigenous Peoples who are asked to share Indigenous language learning spaces with non-Indigenous students. As a group of colleagues from different communities, all with connections to Indigenous language revitalization, we came together to consider questions such as: Are Indigenous languages for everyone or are they languages that should be learned only by Indigenous peoples? And if we accept or encourage Indigenous language learning by non-Indigenous Canadians, are there parameters that might need to be implemented? To this end, we used the Indigenous research method of conversation (Kovach, 2010) during biweekly meetings recorded on Zoom. Data consisted of meeting transcripts and web-based documents of written reflections. In our analysis of these documents, we identified three interrelated themes: 1) linguistic insecurity, 2) trauma and language learning and 3) settler dominance in Indigenous language settings. As a settler colonial country, Canada’s past and present continues to shape interactions between Indigenous Peoples and non-Indigenous Canadians in ways relevant to the topic of Indigenous language revitalization. Ultimately, we do want non-Indigenous people to learn Indigenous languages so that these languages can once again be languages of broader society (McIvor, 2012). We also recognize that Indigenous Peoples deserve to reclaim Indigenous languages in safe and trauma-free ways. Ultimately, we must work together to ensure that including non-Indigenous learners in Indigenous language programs does not cause injury to Indigenous learners. This paper offers recommendations for ways to achieve these goals.

Following Indigeneity to unbuild inequities in teaching for multilingualism: restoring relationship with the Land

ABSTRACT This theoretical article explores how Land-based education could help decolonize language education, starting from the case of dual language bilingual education (DLBE) in the United States. We invoke other scholars’ metaphor of basements versus boutiques to understand how such programs have often either been colonially marginalized into basements or colonially gentrified by middle-class White students. We extend this DLBE problematic beyond and beneath the human-made buildings implied in the basements and boutiques metaphor toward the decolonizing potential Land offers. We analyzed relevant literature on Indigenous language and culture revitalization programs in North America, calling on their expertise and leadership in how to center Land-based thinking and ways of knowing across DLBE. We argue that Land-based pedagogy’s critiques of settler colonialism and Mother Earth’s destruction by humans can help DLBE expand its equity focus toward societal transformation that goes beyond human-centered and language-centered thinking. We theorize what it would mean to bring Land to the heart of non-Indigenous DLBE programs, including six actionable recommendations for a Land-based reframing of DLBE that can further unbuild the coloniality of basements and boutiques.

Indigenous Language Revitalization and Preservation in Canada: Strategies and Innovations

Indigenous Language Revitalization and Preservation in Canada: Strategies and Innovations

Returning Forgotten Voices: Indigenous Language Documentation and Revitalization in Oaxaca, Mexico

Abstract: In collaboration with the APS, CNAIR, and the support of a Franklin Research Grant, in 2016 we embarked on the 'Returning Forgotten Voices/ Retornando las Voces a Sus Orígenes ' Project. The aim of this collaborative initiative was to repatriate sound recordings held at the APS since the 1960s, a unique linguistic and ethnographic corpus pertaining to the Oaxacan Chontal Indigenous group, currently considered among the most endangered languages in Mexico. In Total we visited 16 Highland Chontal communities and left about 250 CDs, DVDs, and other forms of digital reproductions. Together with local partners and intellectuals, we were also able to re-introduce a facsimile of a 1922 linguistic description of Tequistlateco Chontal back to that community. A secondary goal of the project was to gather comparable linguistic data for our ongoing multidisciplinary study on linguistic diversifications and regional collective displacements, with the contribution of 51 contemporary Chontal speakers. Finally, we conducted introductory 'Master-Apprentice' workshops in each community, which aimed to spur language revitalization efforts. The project members and Chontal collaborators currently continue with linguistic diversification research and cultural revitalization efforts, with the support of our Mexican partners at the National Institute of Indigenous Languages and the Center for the Study and Development of Indigenous Languages of Oaxaca, and through the LADORES Linguistic Lab at California State University, Los Angeles. In this article we discuss the enduring achievements and challenges of the 'Returning Forgotten Voices' Project, and in particular focus on drawing lessons for similar initiatives in Mexico and beyond.

Littératures autochtones au carrefour des langues : Approches et pistes

This article examines critical discourses and approaches for the study of Indigenous literatures across languages. On the one hand, it investigates how the French-English divide is challenged by Indigenous authors and how it has been and can be further dealt with in Indigenous literary studies (ILS). On the other hand, it pays attention to the centrality and revitalization of Indigenous languages as they challenge colonial languages, complicate the French-English divide in ILS, and center Indigenous experiences. Engaging with the question “what approaches can scholars, teachers, and students in Indigenous literary studies use for the study of Indigenous literatures at the crossroads of languages?”, I highlight multilingual work by Indigenous authors, collect resources that directly engage Indigenous literatures from a (multi)language perspective, and gather approaches that can be helpful in developing a framework for the study of the multilingual corpus of Indigenous literatures.

Language policy and planning

It is intended that this annotated bibliography be used as a stand-alone resource or in tandem with the related literature review about Language Planning and Policy: Factors that Impact on Successful Language Planning and Policy. A variety of literary sources, such as research reports and journal articles, are consulted in the bibliography. In order to give a summary of the main ideas and shared comprehension of the elements that influence successful language planning and policy, especially in relation to the revitalization of Indigenous and minority languages also upkeep. The goal was to find more modern works of literature, created about approaches and materials on language policy and planning (LPP). Although the literatures were based on the review’s body of work was expanded to include foundational works that addressed the major

The discursive construction of language ownership and responsibility for Indigenous language revitalisation

AbstractUnpacking the possible ramification of how ownership of language and the responsibility of language revitalisation is perceived and how this may impact language revitalisation, this study uses a critical discourse studies approach to examine how the speakers negotiate their language ownership, which eventually leads to the question ‘who is responsible for language revitalisation’. The data of this study comes from semi‐structured interviews with 11 Indigenous participants in Taiwan. The findings suggest that, when deciding who can ‘do’ language revitalisation, only those who are deemed legitimate by the speakers have the power to act. However, the speakers view the non‐Indigenous speakers as potential speakers and, thus, were also assigned language revitalisation responsibility. Thus, by encouraging non‐Indigenous speakers to become speakers of an Indigenous language via language acquisition, language ownership is shared. This study shows the complexity of how the speakers negotiate language ownership and how this has an impact on language revitalisation efforts.

Creating Online Indigenous Language Courses as Decolonizing Praxis

This article shares a participatory action research project about the use of technology, specifically online Indigenous language courses, to learn and teach Indigenous languages. The research collaborators are the NEȾOLṈEW̱ “one mind, one people” Partnership, 7000 Languages, and two Indigenous Partners who have created courses with 7000 Languages: the Hase’ Language Revitalization Society and the Prairies to Woodlands Indigenous Language Revitalization Circle (P2WILRC). Together we consider (a) how Indigenous Nations and organizations create and implement online courses for their languages and (b) what community-led interventions could make these efforts more effective. We position our work together as decolonizing and transformative praxis toward the continuance of Kwak̓wala, Michif, and other Indigenous languages.

“What is language for us?”: Community-based Anishinaabemowin language planning using TEK-nology

Language planning and policy (LPP), as a field of research, emerged to solve the “problem” of multilingualism in newly independent nation-states. LPP’s principal emphasis was the reproduction of one-state, one-language policies. Indigenous languages were systematically erased through top-down, colonial medium-of-instruction policies, such as in Canadian residential schools. To this day, ideologies and policies still privilege dominant classes and languages at the expense of Indigenous and minoritized groups and languages. To prevent further erasure and marginalization, work is required at multiple levels. There is growing consensus that top-down, government-led LPP must occur alongside community-led, bottom-up LPP. One shared and common goal for Indigenous language reclamation and revitalization initiatives across the globe is to promote intergenerational language transmission in the home, the community, and beyond. The affordances of digital and online technologies are also being explored to foster more self-determined virtual communities of practice. Following an Indigenous research paradigm, this paper introduces the TEK-nology (Traditional Ecological Knowledge [TEK] and technology) pilot project in the Canadian context. TEK-nology is an immersive, community-led, and technology-enabled Indigenous language acquisition approach to support Anishinaabemowin language revitalization and reclamation. The TEK-nology pilot project is an example of bottom-up, community-based language planning (CBLP) where Indigenous community members are the language-related decision-makers. This paper demonstrates that Indigenous-led, praxis-driven CBLP, using TEK-nology, can support Anishinaabemowin language revitalization and reclamation and more equitable, self-determined LPP. The CBLP TEK-nology project has implications for status and acquisition language planning; culturally responsive LPP methodologies; and federal, provincial, territorial, and family language policy.

From the Queen's English to reclaiming indigenous languages: An African poetic perspective

From the Queen's English to reclaiming indigenous languages: An African poetic perspective

What we need to know about conducting language revitalisation work - A literature review from sociolinguistic perspectives

This article provides a critical review of literature relating to Indigenous language revitalisation, including an introduction that provides the sociolinguistic background on language endangerment, and makes a strong plea for language preservation work. In particular, this paper highlights the efforts required prior to conducting language revitalisation work by explaining language endangerment assessment criteria and the efforts entailed to carry out the work. In theorising language revitalisation, key concepts and vocabulary are explained, and thus, the content serves as an additional resource to PG students interested in research related to language and society.

The Role of AI in Supporting Indigenous Languages

This study aims to explore the role of AI in supporting indigenous languages, focusing on its impact, the challenges encountered, and the opportunities it presents for language revitalization efforts. Employing a qualitative research design, this study gathered data through semi-structured interviews with 25 participants, including indigenous language speakers, linguists, AI technologists, and cultural preservationists. Thematic analysis was used to identify and categorize the main themes and concepts arising from the interviews. Three main themes were identified: the Impact of AI on Language Preservation, Challenges, and Opportunities. AI was found to significantly support language learning tools, community engagement, accessibility, and content creation while raising ethical considerations. Challenges included technical barriers, cultural and social barriers, and financial and resource constraints. Opportunities for AI in language revitalization were identified in collaboration and partnership, innovation and adaptation, and technological advancements. AI holds substantial potential to support the preservation and revitalization of indigenous languages through tailored learning tools, enhanced accessibility, and community engagement. However, realizing this potential fully requires addressing the identified challenges through collaborative efforts, ethical considerations, and sustained investment in technological and community-based solutions.

‘The stories are told by us’/U.S.: politics of telling stories about Indigenous languages with (and without) music

ABSTRACT Stories and storytelling about language initiatives are an important political device in constructing and perpetuating language status planning and policies. However, little attention has been given to meta-discursive practices by institutions about Indigenous language revitalization in the U.S. as well as how music can play important roles in storytelling of Indigenous language initiatives by Indigenous storytellers and performers. In this paper, we problematize congressional discursive practices about Indigenous languages and show how “damage-centered” (Tuck, Eve. 2009. “Suspending Damage: A Letter to Communities.” Harvard Educational Review 79 (3): 409–427.) storytelling attempts to normalize and justify problematic federal language status planning and policies on Indigenous language initiatives. In contrast, we highlight how Indigenous storytellers and performers creatively tell stories about themselves and their languages both with and through music at federal events that concern Indigenous language revitalization. We show how musicking in relation to or as a form of storytelling can help dispel damaging outsider misconceptions, uplift Indigenous epistemologies and ontologies by Indigenizing time and space, and (re)claim self representation. We suggest that storytelling with music can be a possible strategy to affirm Indigenous storytelling sovereignty that can also disrupt damaging language status planning and policies that attempt to govern Indigenous language initiatives.

‘We are Indigenous people, not primitive people.’: the role of popular music in Indigenous language revitalization in Taiwan

ABSTRACT Indigenous languages in Taiwan are experiencing various degrees of language endangerment. Reversing language shift, however, faces difficulties due to the minority status of the languages. This study identifies two Indigenous singer-songwriters who released popular music sung in their endangered Indigenous languages as micro-level language planning actors and investigates their language activism. Drawing on the framework of strategies in language activism, this study analyses their grass-root initiatives in language activism by examining their public discourse about their ideologies and actions. This study finds that through strategic creating and representing, the musicians aimed to encourage Indigenous youth to use their ethnic language, develop their confidence through popular music, and shift the image of Indigenous languages from traditional, inferior, and underprivileged to international, modern, and confident. Moreover, this study found that, unlike previous studies, the Taiwanese musicians employed various connecting strategies to create a sustainable virtuous cycle to motivate Indigenous people to revitalize their languages. Furthermore, their strategies consider language ecology and aim to connect non-Indigenous Taiwanese with their initiatives to create a friendly societal environment for the Indigenous people. The findings contribute to the development of a repertoire of strategies in language activism and have practical implications for Indigenous language revitalization.

Lingua Nullius: Indigenous Language Learning and Revitalization as Sites for Settler-Colonial Violence

This article examines the role that Indigenous language learning and use can play in the establishment of false or spurious claims to Indigeneity. These acts of “race shifting” are situated within the political discourse of “Truth and Reconciliation” and serve to enable settlers to situate themselves in positions where, both materially and symbolically, they rely on their claims to “Indigeneity” to take up resources dedicated to Indigenous people. Indigenous language use and language revitalization programs provide tools that can enable these performances of Indigenous identity to become more widely accepted among predominantly settler audiences. We argue that increasing consciousness of the inherently political nature of Indigenous language work – often framed as a move toward language reclamation – must be pushed even further, to consider the possibility that some users are not reclaiming but in fact claiming. These acts of claiming the language function in much the same way as claims to land have within settler colonialism – to dispossess Indigenous people and to disrupt Indigenous sovereignty.

Persistence in Indigenous language work during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Through the COVID-19 pandemic, Indigenous communities have persisted in Indigenous language revitalization and reclamation efforts. This research utilized a scan of social media, a survey, and interviews, conducted in the summer and fall of 2020 and primarily focused on Canada, to explore: What shifts to support Indigenous language work occurred during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic? and What were the impacts of these shifts on Indigenous language revitalization and reclamation? This article discusses six cross-cutting themes: (a) shifting and adapting language work to ensure community health and safety, (b) building capacity to make necessary shifts and adaptations, (c) facing challenges in shifting online, (d) promoting Indigenous languages online and in community, (e) creating and sharing language resources as alternative or increased activity, and (f) (re-)envisioning language education and pedagogy in a pandemic time. These themes exemplify Indigenous persistence in Indigenous language revitalization and reclamation work during the pandemic.

Mobile Learning as a Tool for Indigenous Language Revitalization and Sustainability in Canada

In this article, the authors explore how mobile learning can complement the Certificate of Indigenous Languages program at the University of Saskatchewan in Western Canada. Through the FRAME model analysis, the authors extract salient cultural, pedagogical, environmental, and technological characteristics that should be considered in the development of mobile learning tools and approaches for Cree language teachers. It is hoped that this article will stimulate a dialogue amongst designers and Indigenous groups regarding language sustainability through mobile learning. The article concludes with key findings: the need to follow protocols, to establish good relationships, and to design for areas of low/no bandwidth. Finally, the examination of current Indigenous language learning methods provides ideas for the development of much needed “apps” appropriate for Cree learners and teachers.

Revitalization and revival of indigenous languages and cultures with applied linguistics and technology

ABSTRACT The Applied Linguistics field is criticized for neglecting Indigenous languages and cultures as well as social justice issues. Some see technology as exasperating the digital divide. We are urged to reflect on our work to see whose interests the field serves and respond with action. I discuss these issues in relation to existing work, arguing that Applied Linguistics should view the revitalization and revival of endangered Indigenous languages and cultures as a social justice issue. I will then show how this can be done from a broader sociolinguists perspective and through projects with technology to benefit both the Indigenous and the Applied Linguistics professional communities.