Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge Research Articles

Indigenous people's perception of indigenous agricultural knowledge for climate change adaptation in Khumbu, Nepal

IntroductionThere is a dearth of empirical work on indigenous people's perception of the effectiveness of indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices for climate change adaptation, especially in the mountain region. Existing scholarships in Nepal are concentrated on people's perception of climate change and verifying the effects of socio-economic variables on adopting adaptation strategies. There is a lack of application of a socio-psychological model to scrutinize subjective and cognitive factors influencing adaptation.MethodsThis study aims to utilize the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to provide insights into the risk perception of climate change and the perception of adaptation efficacy of indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices. A randomly sampled questionnaire survey and focus group discussions were conducted in five villages in the Khumbu region of Nepal.Results and discussionThe results indicated that indigenous peoples had observed changes in seasonality, a decrease in snowfall frequency, and an increase in rainfall, posing a significant threat to their lives and livelihood. The perception of adaptation efficacy assessment disclosed that indigenous knowledge is effective in adapting to changing climatic conditions. It was found that the knowledge has been evolving and remains dynamic and relevant even in the backdrop of climate change. However, there is a lack of formal recognition of indigenous knowledge by the government authorities. Hence, the study's findings accredit the significance of indigenous knowledge. From the viewpoint of the generational succession of knowledge and devising cost-effective climate change adaptation strategy, it indicates a dire need for its incorporation into local climate policies and action plans.

Indigenous agricultural knowledge: A neglected human based resource for sustainable crop protection and production

Indigenous knowledge, developed over generations and owned by communities or individuals within a community, offers alternative strategies and perspectives on resource management and use. However, as emphasized in the contemporary agricultural history of Ethiopia, the most effective indigenous agricultural knowledge has not been well documented and some of them are replaced by modern techniques. This study was therefore conducted to assess and document community-based techniques to control pests and diseases and the practical implications of indigenous farming techniques. A focus group discussion, key informant interviews and semi-structured questionnaires were conducted with 150 farmers. The result showed that a substantial number (92%) of the farming community uses indigenous based plant protection measures. Indigenous farmers (92%) splash liquids made of cow urine to control the adverse effect of fungi. Farmers are also using different seed selection methods for next season planting. About 29% of the farmers do single head-based seed selection prior to mass harvesting, 34% are collected as “Qerm” and 45% select their seeds during threshing. Indigenous farming knowledge varies with the natural feature of the growing location and cropping system, including the rainfall pattern, soil fertility status, crop, and weed type. The observed positive effect of indigenous agricultural practices on crop production substantiates the need to include these essential approaches in the cultivation system along with the modern agronomic techniques. This might reduce the dependency on expensive and pollutant agricultural inputs. However, sociodemographic factors such as educational level, marital status and farming experience have been found as a determinant factor that influences utilization of indigenous farming knowledge. It can be therefore inferred that documenting indigenous knowledge and proving its applicability scientifically could contribute to organically oriented agricultural production and consequently reduce agriculture's contribution to environmental pollution.

The role of permaculture in the integration of indigenous and modern agricultural knowledge: Evidence from Konso, Ethiopia

AbstractThe modern and indigenous agricultural knowledge have own strength and deficiencies. The modern agriculture with its technological advents has the capability for boosting production. However, it has environmentally hostile externalities. On the other hand, IK of agriculture is nature friendly and organic in its production. However, it is slow to meet the growing need for food because of demographic stress and emerging preferences. Therefore, both sides need innovative responses to capitalize on their strength and avoid limitations. One of the alternatives is to integrate the two systems. Based on this rationale, this study explored the integrative role of permaculture in bridging indigenous and modern agricultural knowledge. Purposive sampling was applied for the selection of the research area and participants. The research approach followed was qualitative. Interview, FGD and observation were used for data collection. Thematic and narrative analysis was used for data analysis. The finding of the study indicated that farmers in the study area were receptive of some of the knowledge from modern agriculture such as improved seeds and some methods such as pest control. But at the same time they are suspicious about some sides such as the impact of fertilizers, the effectiveness of some improved seed, and concerned about the disappearance of important local seeds. Though it was not deeply implemented those who have the exposure were positive about permaculture, for its philosophy is consistent with their IK. Therefore, if properly implemented permaculture can play important bridging role in the integration of indigenous and modern farming.

Understanding and preserving Indigenous agricultural knowledge: a suggested way forward for future research

Purpose Indigenous farmers have, for centuries, applied practices which maintained resilient and sustainable landscapes. Thus, understanding and preserving the agricultural knowledge of Indigenous farmers may enhance the knowledge base of sustainable agriculture. The purpose of this paper is to review current research in the fields of Indigenous knowledge and sustainability to present a research approach which enables a cohesive global way forward for future research projects seeking to understand and preserve Indigenous agricultural knowledge. Design/methodology/approach This study applied thematic analysis to review 57 research studies in the field of Indigenous knowledge and sustainability. Key themes were identified from four overarching criteria: research methodology, data input, output and outcomes. Findings The findings revealed a range of commonalities among the 57 research studies reviewed. This study proposes the research should continue to seek to understand and preserve Indigenous knowledge, however, research needs to go beyond simply documenting Indigenous knowledge. The way forward requires research of Indigenous agricultural knowledge to establish databases, digital repositories (including oral, video, visual) and online repositories with globally shared access, whilst acknowledging and acting in partnership with Indigenous farmers and their communities. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is an original study which has practical implications for enhancing research outcomes with regard to preservation of Indigenous knowledge. The findings of this study may be used to influence research policy formulation and implementation.

Climate change adaptation in agriculture: Learning from an international labour mobility programme in Australia and the Pacific Islands region

Climate change is expected to seriously affect agricultural livelihoods and food security in all Pacific Island countries. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation contends that, to adapt, both ‘modern’ and Indigenous agricultural practices and knowledge are needed. A challenge lies in combining agricultural knowledge systems and enabling adaptive knowledge to be shared amongst Pacific Islanders. Opportunities to integrate different types of agricultural knowledge (including ‘modern’ and Indigenous) are needed. This paper argues that international labour mobility programmes provide an avenue for knowledge exchange that can support climate change adaptation in agriculture. It presents empirical evidence from research with 33 Pacific Islanders who grow crops in their home countries and were employed in Australia’s Seasonal Worker Programme (SWP). We demonstrate how SWP participation opened new possibilities for climate change adaptation in agriculture in the Pacific Islands. Adaptive knowledge stems from SWP workers’ exposure to different agricultural skills and ideas in Australia, combined with their knowledge and experience of crop production in their countries of origin. SWP participation created opportunities for workers to draw on different agricultural skills and knowledge on return to the Pacific Islands. The ability for SWP workers to then exchange adaptive knowledge with other Pacific Islanders is enabled by their social relationships, the likes of which an official agricultural extension officer might not have to the same degree. So far, such adaptive agricultural knowledge and skills exchanges are serendipitous. There is scope to explicitly build climate change knowledge exchange into agriculture-focused international labour mobility schemes.

Enhancing integration of Indigenous agricultural knowledge into USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service cost-share initiatives

Agricultural management practices drawn from Indigenous agricultural knowledge (IAK) have supported people in the North American desert Southwest for thousands of years. Techniques developed and refined from generation to generation through careful observation and innovation have enhanced the sustainability and resilience of these delicate agroecosystems over millennia. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) recognized the contributions of IAK practices to Environmental Quality Incentives (EQIP) and the Conservation Stewardship Programs (CSP) in the 2010 <i>Indigenous Stewardship Methods and NRCS Conservation Practices</i> (ISM) handbook. However, during fiscal year 2017 2% of EQIP and CSP contracts went to American Indian farms, which make up 2.9% of the total farms in the United States. NRCS would need to award nearly 400 more contracts to Indigenous farms to achieve proportional representation. This suggests significant potential exists for expanding American Indian participation in these conservation programs but barriers to their participation remain. For example, agriculturalists who wish to employ IAK management practices must go through an ad hoc process defined in the 2010 ISM handbook. This adds further complexity to the application process, in which applicants must navigate unique land tenure/ownership issues and tribal/federal interactions. Here we present examples of Indigenous conservation practices embedded in agricultural systems of Hopi dryland farmers, the La Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa wild rice (<i>Zizania palustris</i>) harvesters, and Menominee tribal foresters to demonstrate the compatibility of IAK practices with NRCS conservation outcomes and to argue for full inclusion of Indigenous agricultural practices into something equivalent to the NRCS Field Office Technical Guides. Expansion of Indigenous agriculturalists and producers in NRCS programs can help preserve important ecosystems and help support Indigenous cultures and time-tested concepts of stewardship. Incorporation and support of IAK practices is beneficial to all stakeholders because expansion of partnerships between the NRCS and Indigenous agriculturalists and producers will help expand Indigenous conservation and agriculture practices and further the NRCS mission of “Helping People Help the Land.”

Indigenous agricultural technical knowledge for the management of common pests and diseases of rice and stored grains in Jorhat District, Assam.

Indigenous agricultural technical knowledge for the management of common pests and diseases of rice and stored grains in Jorhat District, Assam.

Integrating Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge into Modern Agricultural Practices for Sustainable Rural Household Food Security in Uganda

Food security is a major concern of the global development Agenda as reflected in Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs). Globally 2 billion people are food insecure and the situation is on a rise especially in developing countries. The Modern Agricultural Practices (MAP) being promoted have not solved the situation. The Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge (IAK) that has sustained food production, access and utilization in developing countries is not recognized in food security strategies. Uganda’s food security situation is alarming; nearly half of Uganda’s 7.3 million households are food insecure. More than 90% of the food produced in Uganda is by peasant farmers and depend on IAK, but there are no formal interventions that seek to encourage people to use it. This study was carried out in Isingiro District, South Western Uganda in the 3 Sub Counties of Masha, Kabingo and Kabuyanda that were purposively selected. Food security is a major challenge facing district and more than 95% of the people struggle to produce food through IAK. The implementation of Millennium Village Project in the district did not change the situation. The study employed a case study research methodology, but priority given to qualitative methods. 102 respondents were interviewed that included; farmers, local leaders and key informants. Three Focus Group Discussions were heldin each sub-county where data collected from. The findings indicated that the district was experiencing both chronic and acute food insecurity. The main causes of food insecurity included poverty, extended dry seasons, lack of granaries and lack of government enforcement. The IAK practices used towards food security included terrain and soil selection, intercropping, weather forecasting, seed selection, sun drying, use of local pesticides and control of banana bacterial wilt. The MAP used included; spraying, planting of hybrid seeds, use of fertilizers, and preservation of beans grains using lindane dust.IAK was contributing greatly towards the four pillars of food security of availability, access, utilization and stability in the district. The study recommends that it should promoted and one way of doing it is integrating it into MAP since it is what the majority use.Regarding integration of IAK and MAP, the study revealed that there was a conscious integration of both and came up with a six step frame work that can be applied to integrate IAK into MAP to ensure sustainable food security at rural house hold level in Uganda.

Analysis of Indigenous Communication Channels for Disseminating Agricultural Information: The case of North Gondar Zone

In Ethiopia, information reaches to farmers mainly through indigenous and exogenous communication channels which include social gatherings, training, meetings, and conferences followed by learning through direct observation. Indigenous communication channels provides an effective means for rural communities to access various types of information related to their farming and day-to-day life. However, the practices and prospects of indigenous communication channels need policy-oriented research to analyze and facilitate meaningful interventions in the areas of agricultural information dissemination. This study was initiated with the objective of identifying existing indigenous Communication Channels used by farm households, assess farmers perception of indigenous Communication Channels utilization to exchange agricultural innovation, analyze the challenges related to exchanging and disseminating of agricultural information with respect to indigenous knowledge and assess indigenous agricultural knowledge preservation practices in the North Gondar Zone. Data were collected from 120 sample household heads, 30 focus group discussants and key informants and both primary and secondary data were used for the study. Household survey, focus group discussion and key informant interview were used to triangulate and strengthen the data collected sample household heads. For the purpose of data analysis, descriptive statistics (frequency &amp; percentage), and inferential statistics (chi-square test T-test) were used. The results of the study showed that 70% of the respondents highly preferred indigenous communication channels than exogenous communication channels. The most regularly preferred and utilized channel was Church (47.5%), followed by public meeting organized by the community (22.5%) where as village meeting organized by the community (11.7%) and neighbors (6.7%) occupied the third and fourth position in the ranking. It was also indicated that the utilization of indigenous communication channels determined by age and educational status of respondents. In this regard elder and illiterate household heads preferred and utilized indigenous communication channels than exogenous communication channels. Based on the findings, the researchers recommended that indigenous communication channels utilization should be incorporated in the plan of Agricultural Extension Agents, indigenous communication channels should be form as part of agricultural information dissemination package to encourage and facilitate exchanging of information by rural people, Policies, strategies and good practices with respect to indigenous communication channels have to be developed with active participation of primary stakeholders to utilize it effectively.

Weaving indigenous agricultural knowledge with formal education to enhance community food security: school competition as a pedagogical space in rural Anchetty, India

Like many socially and economically disadvantaged farming communities around the world, the Anchetty region of Tamil Nadu, India, has been experiencing serious food security challenges mainly due to the loss of traditional foods such as small millets and associated crops (SMAC) and associated indigenous agricultural knowledge (IAK). Drawing on community-based participatory research conducted in Anchetty’s Pandurangdoddy village, this paper explores the local understanding of IAK related to SMAC through young learners (school-going students) and their mentors (local farmers and community members), using a case study of school-based competition. Follow-up interviews with participating students, mentors and teachers were organised to explore the potential of a school competition as a pedagogical strategy to promote learning of IAK in formal school settings in order to safeguard the existing and future food security of local communities. There was a general consensus among the teachers, participating students, mentors (community members) and NGOs anout the potential for a school competition to create an alternative pedagogical space where IAK and curriculum-based knowledge could be intertwined and exchanged. Pedagogical spaces that weave IAK into schools, however, bring together the different and contested perspectives of the participants to understandings of the potential values of IAK.

“A Laudable Spirit of Enterprise”: Renegotiating Land, Natural Resources, and Power on Post-Revolutionary Long Island

In the wake of the American Revolution, Long Island farmers faced severe intertwined environmental and economic crises. Amidst on-going Indian removals and the gradual manumission of enslaved African workers, the region’s land and labor resources were also in flux. Deeply concerned about the region’s declining productivity, Ezra L’Hommedieu (1734–1811), a gentleman farmer and advocate of modern agronomy on Long Island’s East End, sought to promote scientific agriculture in response to ecological problems (such as soil depletion and invasive pests), changing patterns of migration and land use, and growing social tensions. He and his circle of like-minded associates sought to appropriate indigenous agricultural knowledge as part of a supposedly enlightened land restoration agenda, albeit one that hinged on the displacement of native people and continued access to a dependent labor force. Laying claim to scientific expertise—in the service of economic development and, less overtly, of cultural hegemony—was one channel whereby L’Hommedieu and his peers sought to reassert their authority and status. As contestation over land, power, and natural resources reshaped Long Island, its preservation as a productive agricultural region became inextricably bound up with the national politics of western expansion and Indian removal in the Early Republic.

English

Longstanding relationship (amicable and hostile) has existed between Awi andGumuz nationalities since Aksumite era. Their early relationship had been full of pain because of the fact that the successive highland kings had appointed Awi chiefs to run state affairs in Gumuz community, which left bad seed on the future relation between two generations. As time went on, a shift from hostile to friendly relation marked since the change of politics in 1974 because of socio-political developments and the dynamic nature of the interaction. The study focused on driving socio-political and economic developments which promoted tolerance, cohabitation and diffusion of the indigenous agricultural knowledge system between these two people. The Gumuz and Awi inhabited Woredas of Awi and Metekelzonez were selected for this study. The researcher attempted to consult wide ranges of primary and secondary sources. Elders from Awi and Gumuz are extensively interviewed. They responded that agricultural alliance leads to the shift of indigenous knowledge such as traditional agricultural activities, management of crop production etc from Awi to Gumuz. The sources are critically collected, scrutinized and analyzed. The validities of the sources are cross-checked one against the other. Key words: Peaceful- coexistence, indigenous knowledge system.

Documenting and Disseminating Agricultural Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Food Security: The Efforts of Agricultural Research Libraries in Nigeria

Developing the agricultural sector remains a critical factor towards the achievement of sustainable food production and, indeed, global food security. While indigenous agricultural knowledge is of immense value in improving food production, its documentation and dissemination remain a big challenge confronting librarians and other information professionals, particularly in Africa where traditional practices are prevalent. This study, therefore, investigated the efforts of agricultural research libraries in Nigeria in documenting and disseminating agricultural indigenous knowledge towards achieving sustainable food security in the country. It also determined the agricultural indigenous practices that have been documented as well as the obstacles to the documentation of agricultural indigenous knowledge. Librarians in selected agricultural research libraries in Nigeria constituted the target population of the study, and a questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations have been made aimed at improving the documentation and dissemination of agricultural indigenous knowledge in order to enhance food security in Nigeria.

Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation

Study of indigenous knowledge has been a challenge, as it demands cross-cultural and inter-disciplinary understanding. Of late, contribution of IK to conservation of resources and solution science has been realised by academia and policy-makers, which is expanding the frontiers of knowledge use for innovation. Interface between science and indigenous knowledge system (IKS) is increasingly observed in the field of agriculture, simultaneously putting emphasis on knowledge transformation at institutional level. With this central argument, the paper discusses essentialities of IK as socio-cultural base of agricultural innovation. Indigenous knowledge’s engagement with innovation reflects the nature of preservation of IK within the discourse of technology transfer. Findings of the study suggest that empowerment of agricultural extension units is essential for preservation of knowledge and to facilitate reproduction of appropriate knowledge.

Development and the Yucatec Maya in Quintana Roo: some successes and failures

Maya agriculture is currently outperforming alternatives across the Yucatán Peninsula, while changing to incorporate new ideas that fit with its basic commitment to shifting agriculture based on maize as the staple and over 100 minor crops. Considerable research over the last 60 years has shown the reasons for agricultural resilience, which include thorough understanding of the Yucatán environment and use of a range of resources and techniques that allow fine-tuning in particular situations while remaining flexible overall. Development efforts have usually failed in this environment, which has shallow and fragile soils and suffers from frequent droughts, typhoons, and pest outbreaks. The predictor of development success is usually supply and demand: where there is a market, the Maya will work to develop supply capability; where there is no market, traditional subsistence methods are better than the introductions. Government or international help is, however, needed to help develop markets and to provide expert knowledge of how to mobilize for them and connect to them. When this has been done, some important successes have followed. A current problem is the international subsidy economy. Neoliberalism in the Maya context involves a reduction of government help to local and small-scale enterprises while large-scale multinational firms are given enormous direct and indirect subsidies by their home governments and by commodity-producing nations. The resulting unfair competition is a block on development. Actual free markets—in the sense of local grassroots enterprise being given something like a level playing field—could be an improvement.Key words: Maya; neoliberalism; Indigenous agricultural knowledge; access to markets

Contradictions in the Last Mile

Despite its use to exemplify how the world is “flat,” India is in many ways “spiky.” Hyderabad is a prosperous hub of information–communication technology (ICT) while its impoverished agricultural hinterland is best known for dysfunctional agriculture and farmer suicide. Based on the belief that a lack of knowledge and skill lay at the root of agrarian distress, the “e-Sagu” project aimed to leverage the city’s scientific expertise and ICT capability to aid cotton farmers. The project fit with a national surge of “last mile” projects bringing ICT to the village, but it was unique in using ICT to connect farmers directly with agricultural scientists acting as advisors. Such projects fit the interests of many actors, which has led to an unrealistic national enthusiasm about their impacts. This article uses the first five years of the project as a lens to view the cultural nature of both indigenous agricultural knowledge and “scientific” agricultural advising. Unlike lay publics whose uptake of science is better known, with farmers the invention and adoption of agro-scientific knowledge is deeply embedded in daily productive activities and sociocultural interactions. E-Sagu eventually had to abandon its construction of agricultural science as objective and acultural, resorting to rural methods of persuasion. It also found that it could only survive by joining forces with companies promoting commodification of agricultural inputs, which was a cause of the agrarian distress it sought to alleviate.

Indigenous resource management and environmental degradation: southern Greece

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the potential of indigenous agricultural knowledge for sustainable development.Design/methodology/approachDrawing upon fieldwork on the natural resource management practices of diversified farming systems in a mountainous community in southern Greece, the paper explores the potential of the traditional system for a sustainable food security system.FindingsSmall‐scale mountainous farmers possess a range of ideas and concepts from experience related to land degradation. At another level the findings of the study suggest that farmers place over‐riding emphasis on the physical characteristics of their environment in judging the various stages of degradation. Until in a direct interview situation they were forced to confront the part played by human‐related factors.Practical implicationsA major implication is that mountain farming communities need to be educated on the human aspects of degradation and in fact the interrelatedness of cultural activities and the physical world. Furthermore, sustainability in mountain communities depends on more than ecological factors; it requires sensitivity to socio‐economic parameters such as labour demands and food security policies.Originality/valueThe current paper presents useful information on indigenous resource management practices and environmental degradation in mountain communities in Greece. The approach, fieldwork data and interpretation of data can be of value to social researchers in Greece and southern Europe who study issues of sustainability in mountain farming communities.

What do subsistence farmers know about indigenous crops and organic farming? Preliminary experience in KwaZulu-Natal

The lack of published information on indigenous agricultural knowledge in South Africa frustrates the efforts of scientists who seek to enhance the creativity of subsistence farmers, and thus help their delivery from the cycle of poverty to commercialised farming. The term ‘indigenous crop’ is not clearly defined in the literature, and confusion about what is a traditional or an indigenous crop often arises even in conversations with local people. Perhaps the confusion stems from the generally accepted norm that a crop is associated with conventional production practices and commercialisation. Indigenous crop production and use of indigenous plants for food are generally not associated with conventional agriculture. Many subsistence farmers in South Africa have known only organic farming until recently, when they were introduced to ‘new seeds’ and agricultural chemicals. On-farm opinion surveys and physical farm appraisals were undertaken at the Msinga and Embo tribal areas in KwaZulu-Natal, in an attempt to assess the knowledge of subsistence and small-scale farmers about indigenous crops and organic farming. Results showed that the traditional definition of the term ‘indigenous crop’ may be broader than ‘African only’, at least in the context of indigenous South Africans. The findings also showed that subsistence farmers take organic farming to be a peasant's approach to food production, but its health and economic merits are recognised.

"Bribing the Land": An Appraisal of the Farming Systems of the Maccaa Oromo in Wallagga

“Bribing the Land”:An Appraisal of the Farming Systems of the Maccaa Oromo in Wallagga Tesema Ta’a Introduction Sustainable agriculture is one of the major themes that gained currency in the 1980s, together with macroeconomic reform, food security, and income generation, in response to the financial and ecological problems that imported, high-input modern agricultural practices, such as improved varieties of selected seeds, chemical fertilizers, and weed killers, have engendered. In developing countries, the emphasis on sustainability evolved from a reassessment of the role of indigenous systems of knowledge and practices in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, and natural resources management, which, on a small scale, often proved to be more sustainable than some imported systems.1 Later, the concept of sustainable agriculture became integrated into the new strategy of Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) and gradually replaced the previous approach, Farming Systems Research (FSR).2 Scholars, particularly agricultural economists, have defined sustainability in various ways. According to Vernon W. Ruttan (1988), "Any definition of sustainability which is appropriate to be used as a guide to agricultural practice should at least recognize the need for enhancement of productivity to meet the increased demands created by a growing population and rising income."3 In this article, sustainability refers to the capacity of a given farming society to survive over a longer period of time—from generation to generation in an area or region, resisting [End Page 97] shocks, strains, and stresses that are natural or man-made—and to be able to feed its growing population in an economically viable and socially acceptable human-oriented manner. An attempt will be made to assess the extent to which the indigenous Oromo farming system in Wallagga complies with such a strategy. Over the course of several centuries, the Maccaa Oromo of Wallagga in Western Ethiopia have developed a highly diverse and complex qotiisa (farming system), using indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices. Through the application of their agricultural knowledge and practices, the Maccaa Oromo have been able to obtain surplus harvests and maintain harmonious and balanced relationships between crop cultivation, livestock raising, plant life, and the environment. Their farming systems and practices have also provided a certain degree of continuity and sustainability during periodic disruptions due to climatic variations and political upheavals. This article attempts to shed light on several aspects of the Maccaa Oromo farming system and their implications for sustainable development.4 An Overview of the Agricultural History of the Oromo At present, the study of agriculture and the environment in Oromia is in its infancy. Written accounts of almost all aspects of Oromo history and culture are not only scarce but sometimes fragmented, misrepresented, and misinterpreted.5 In Ethiopian studies, there seems to be a lack of emphasis on farming systems and a dearth of adequate scientific documentation, especially on the agricultural history and indigenous agricultural systems of the Oromo. The available oral and written sources indicate that the cradle land of the Oromo, the largest ethnonation in northeast Africa with a distinct culture and language, Afaan Oromoo, is located in present day south-central Ethiopia.6 Before the sixteenth century, which was marked by major population movements in Ethiopia and the Horn, the region is reputed to have been extremely fertile, suitable for grain cultivation and animal husbandry and sustaining a highly diverse flora and fauna. It had sufficient rainfall and enough water for people and their cattle. There was plenty of pasture for the numerous herds and flocks of the Oromo. [End Page 98] Over time, however, the population of both people and domestic animals increased and the Oromo were forced to extend their habitat, as well as their agricultural and grazing lands. Written as well as oral evidence indicates that there was significant human and animal growth among the Oromo during the sixteenth century. It was at this time that the Gadaa institution, the socioeconomic and political system of the Oromo, reached its full maturity, leading to what may be referred to as an "Oromo Renaissance."7 In addition, external pressures, such as the continuous expansion of the Abyssinian Christian kingdom from the north, and internal demographic and ecological changes triggered the famed sixteenth-century "Oromo...

Enhancing Sustainable Production and Genetic Resource Conservation of Bambara Groundnut: A Survey of Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge Systems

Bambara groundnut ( Vigna subterranea) is so important in most of Africa, and potentially so in other tropical regions, that improvement of its production — especially on a commercial scale — and of its germplasm both deserve renewed and intensive scientific study. Yet, compared with other legumes (such as groundnuts, beans and cowpeas), bambara groundnut has received almost no research or extension attention, although in Ghana and other parts of Africa, it has a higher market value (on a per unit weight basis) than these other legumes. Improving indigenous farm management systems and methods that have resulted from age-old experience and tradition will be difficult for local farmers if they are completely entrenched in their habits. Thus, a survey was conducted to identify and document the traditional farm management practices and key considerations used in bambara groundnut production, along with indigenous knowledge systems linked to the conservation of bambara groundnut germplasm. The study was conducted in the Upper West region of Ghana, which is an area with considerable bambara groundnut genetic diversity. Valuable information on its production and genetic resources exists within the indigenous knowledge systems studied, and ranges from economic and agronomic criteria for peasant farmer selection of particular varieties and traditional uses of the crop, to strategies for the management and conservation of locally adapted varieties, pest and disease management, and environmental and ecological monitoring systems. Research and extension requirements for improving crop production were identified. In addition, germplasm was collected and characterized for conservation.