Indicators Of Social Class Research Articles

Oral Health Inequalities among and Within Neo-Marxian Social Classes in South Korea: A Nationwide Cross-sectional Study

Introduction: The objectives of this study were to examine the association between the neo-Marxian social class (NMSC) and oral health indicators, to determine the role of mediating factors in social class inequalities, and to assess the relationship between a combination of two subjective indicators and normative dental treatment needs (NDTN) according to the NMSC. Methods: Data were from the 4th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2009 with 6710 respondents aged 19–54. The outcomes were self-reported oral health (SROH), self-perceived unmet dental needs (SPUDN), and NDTN. Material (M), psychosocial (PSY), health behavior (HB), and workplace environment were used as mediating factors for SROH and SPUDN. The combination of both outcomes was used in the analysis along with NDTN. Results: Non-skilled groups (10%) and petty bourgeoisie (13.2%) had lower proportions of good SROH as well as the highest proportion of SPUDN (48.5% and 48.7%). Further, expert supervisors reported the highest good SROH (22.6%). The M factor (odds ratio [OR] 1.52 [1.24–1.86]) was the highest in several social classes. Managers had a higher probability of SPUDN (OR 1.27 [0.84–1.92]) than the others. Unhealthy patients – except capitalists – had the highest ORs (7.05 [3.89–12.78]), particularly significantly for NDTN. The pattern of the OR was V-shaped, J-shaped, and increasing shape. Conclusion: There was non-gradient inequality among Korean workforces. The M, PSY, and HB appeared to play an important role. SPUDN appears to be a better indicator for NDTN and disadvantaged groups among Korean workforces was revealed.

The Equal and the More Equal: Pupils' Experiences of School in Lithuania in the late Soviet Era

Aim. The aim of the article is to reveal the experiences and attitudes of pupils who attended schools in the late Soviet era (1960s-1980s) towards the implementation of egalitarianism policies in the schools of the Lithuanian SSR. The analysis of the qualitative research material focuses on the word "felt" in the phrase "We all felt equal then", i.e., not so much on the fixation of social (in)equality by analysing the indicators of social class or economic status, but on the subjective experience of equality as a manifestation of human dignity. Methods. Following the methodology of oral history, material was collected during 32 in-depth interviews with people who had attended schools in the Lithuanian SSR in the late Soviet era. Results. Several themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews relating to the expression of egalitarianism in the Soviet school: the social class of the pupils; the economic situation of the parents; and the ability of the parents to have the so-called "blat". Conclusions. The study revealed that the implementation of the policy of egalitarianism officially declared by the Communist Party in the education system was subject to several reservations. In Soviet Lithuania, just as in the whole society, there were a lot of manifestations of blat, corruption, and favouritism. These were influenced by the positions held by pupils' parents, belonging to the nomenklatura and/or the ability to establish informal contacts. Pupils from rural schools had fewer opportunities to pursue higher education.

Impact of Social Class Background on General Cognitive Ability

Theorists and researchers have been discussing the relationship between social class background and differences observed in cognitive ability test points of children from lower social class families and their middle or upper SES peers. It has been discussed that for a more detailed understanding of these cognitive inequalities, it appears necessary to move beyond boundaries of psychology and consider sociological conditions or contexts as well. It has been asserted that social class background characteristics affect general cognitive ability over time. The present study introduces research exploring the impact of social class background on cognitive abilities of children. In Britain, the 1958 National Child Development Survey (NCDS), the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS70) and more recently, the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS 2000) conducted at the start of the 21st century are particularly relevant and nationally representative broad-based studies for exploring the impact of social class background on general cognitive abilities of children. It was observed that they provided scaled data and emphasized the impact of social class, particularly the role of parental education as an indicator of social class in surveys. Social class affected children’s cognitive abilities as early as primary school years and led to inequalities in their cognitive performance. Children from lower social class and lower socioeconomic status (SES) families suffered a clear disadvantage. Poor and disadvantaged conditions of the lower social class adversely impacted and impaired the cognitive ability of children. Given the fact that cognitive abilities play a role especially in later life, adverse impacts and impairment of cognitive abilities are regarded as alarming and undesirable situations in childhood.

Trends in Assortative Mating and Offspring Outcomes

Abstract We study assortative mating of Norwegian parents over five decades and its consequences for offspring outcomes. Parents are characterised by the earnings decile of their parents (the offspring's grandparents) as an indicator of social class. While assortative mating has remained stable across decades, parenthood has become more skewed toward the higher classes. Examining the influence on offspring education and employment, we find that the marginal effect of one parent's class is smaller the higher is the class of the other. Overall, mating trends have contributed to slight improvements in average education and employment and reduced inequality in the offspring generation.

Social class and the risk of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prospective longitudinal studies.

The association between belonging to a disadvantaged socio-economic status or social class and health outcomes has been consistently documented during recent decades. However, a meta-analysis quantifying the association between belonging to a lower social class and the risk of dementia has yet to be performed. In the present work, we sought to summarise the results of prospective, longitudinal studies on this topic. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective, longitudinal studies measuring the association between indicators of social class and the risk of all-cause/Alzheimer's dementia. The search was conducted in four databases (Medline, Embase, Web of Science and PsychInfo). Inclusion criteria for this systematic review and meta-analysis were: (a) longitudinal prospective study, (b) aged ⩾60 years at baseline, (c) issued from the general population, (d) no dementia at baseline and (e) mention of social class as exposure. Exclusion criteria were: (a) study of rare dementia types (e.g. frontotemporal dementia), (b) abstract-only papers and (c) articles without full text available. The Newcastle-Ottawa scale was used to assess the risk of bias in individual studies. We calculated the overall pooled relative risk of dementia for different social class indicators, both crude and adjusted for sex, age and the year of the cohort start. Out of 4548 screened abstracts, 15 were included in the final analysis (76,561 participants, mean follow-up 6.7 years (2.4-25 years), mean age at baseline 75.1 years (70.6-82.1 years), mean percentage of women 58%). Social class was operationalised as levels of education, occupational class, income level, neighbourhood disadvantage and wealth. Education (relative risk (RR)=2.48; confidence interval (CI) 1.71-3.59) and occupational class (RR=2.09; CI 1.18-3.69) but not income (RR=1.28; CI 0.81-2.04) were significantly associated with the risk of dementia in the adjusted model. Some of the limitations of this study are the inclusion of studies predominantly conducted in high-income countries and the exclusion of social mobility in our analysis. We conclude that there is a significant association between belonging to a social class and the risk of dementia, with education and occupation being the most relevant indicators of social class regarding this risk. Studying the relationship between belonging to a disadvantaged social class and dementia risk might be a fruitful path to diminishing the incidence of dementia over time. However, a narrow operationalisation of social class that only includes education, occupation and income may reduce the potential for such studies to inform social policies.

Newly discovered Roman inscription slab from Celeia in light of there previously attested Greek names

At the end of 2016, archaeological surveillance at Miklošičeva ulica 1 in Celje revealed a tombstone with an inscription broken into several pieces, which is today assembled of four larger fragments. Due to these fractures the inscription has not been completely preserved or cannot be completely reconstructed. However, even the first reading makes it clear that the slab most probably includes Greek names, which makes the inscription all the more intriguing: throughout the Roman Empire, Greek names have certain specifics and are generally more associated with the social background of the name’s owner than with their origin (origo). Greek names were popular among and for slaves and were also retained by freedmen upon their liberation. Thus, they transform from idionyms for slaves into personal names (cognomina) as a part of the tria nomina name formula for freedmen.
 Hence, the discussed inscription slab becomes the starting point for the analysis of previously known Greek names in the area of the town of Celeia and its ager. In the rural hinterland of Celeia, mostly Greek idionyms are documented that can be connected to work at the Trojane customs station (statio Atrantina). In fact, lower grade official jobs there were as a rule reserved for slaves and freedmen (vilici, vicarii, contrascriptiores, scrutatores, etc.). There is only one example from the ager involving the so-called duo nomina, but which also originates from Trojane (Aurelius Asclepiodotus).
 The situation is somewhat different in the town itself; there are not significantly less idionyms (there are three), but there are many more names of the tria (duo) nomina type with a Greek personal name (15 examples). Naturally, this fact brings no surprises; without doubt, the town had many more wealthy and influential families that had a larger number of slaves, whom they also freed. In the majority of such names, we can discern either from the actual inscription on the tombstone or from the context that they do indeed name freedmen. Examples such as Caius Iunius Nicander and Caius Iunius Isaeus, in which we cannot presume the status of freedmen due to their connection with the army, are merely an exception.
 On the newly found tombstone, two Greek names can be discerned despite its fragmentary preservation: these are most probably Hierocles and Heracles, but what needs to be emphasised is that other names (which were certainly present) cannot be reconstructed. It seems that the first one was not an idionym (considering that it was supposedly preceded by the name Tiberius), while the other was probably indeed independent, since it was preceded and followed by the letters FI (for filius) and ET, respectively. In the penultimate line, it seems that in addition to the name in –MUS the word libertus was incised, since the letters LIB can still be seen. This way, the content of the inscription on the tombstone is nicely rounded off and reconfirms the several-times-mentioned fact that Greek names are rarely a reflection of the origin but are rather an indicator of social class.

Assessing Socioeconomic Inequality in Self-Rated Health in Four ex-Yugoslav Countries

There has been a growing academic interest in explaining the well-established association between socioeconomic status and health. Among the various proposed mechanisms and pathways, social capital has been recognised as a potentially important antecedent of socioeconomic inequalities in health. However, these interrelationships remain relatively unexplored within the countries of former Yugoslavia. Therefore, this article aims to fill the gap in the literature by exploring the role of individual-level social capital in the relationship between socioeconomic status and self-rated health in four ex-Yugoslav countries. The present study is based on the data from the ninth round of the European Social Survey (2018). The author analysed the data of participants aged 25 and over from Croatia (N = 1534), Montenegro (N = 1002), Serbia (N = 1720) and Slovenia (N = 1149). In order to test the target associations, sequential multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed. The results show that occupational social class and several social capital indicators are associated with self-rated health, although independently of each other. Across all countries, unskilled and skilled manual workers and long-term unemployed individuals were more likely to report poor health compared to non-manual workers, with the exception of Montenegrin skilled manual workers and the long-term unemployed participants from Slovenia. Moreover, despite some cross-country differences in the relationship between individual levels of social capital and self-rated health, social participation was associated with self-rated health across all countries. These findings highlight the importance of encouraging social participation within these countries, which can lead to health benefits through behavioural and psychosocial mechanisms.

The Continuing Dilemma of Race and Class in the Study of American Political Behavior

This article traces the development of the study of race and class in American political behavior. It starts by challenging the American exceptionalism thesis, particularly its premises regarding the diminutive role of social class and the absence of serious discussions about race. It then critically reviews the conventional scholarship on American political behavior and its reliance on objective indicators of social class as predictors of political preferences and participation. The article also highlights studies that have conceived of class as an important social identity and have thus measured it subjectively. It then discusses the surge of identity studies in the field of race, ethnicity, and politics (REP) and the turn toward an intersectional approach that rarely includes social class. The article ends with a discussion of the handful of studies that do consider the intersections of race and class, and underscores the need for more research of this type to advance our understanding of contemporary American political behavior.

Baldness Scenes In Ancient Egyptian Private Tombs; As An Indicator Of Social Class, Activity And Physical Ability

The Ancient Egyptians were quite advanced in their diagnoses and treatments of various illnesses. Their advancements in ancient medical techniques were quite extraordinary. The ancient Egyptians used their knowledge of the human anatomy and the natural remedies to treat with different diseases and disorders effectively. Analysis of human remains, textual evidences and art depictions attested physical conditions and diseases that the ancient Egyptians were suffered from. Baldness and hair loss was one of the most important dermatological diseases the ancient Egyptians concerned. The ancient Egyptians were searching for a hair loss cure since1500 BC. The Egyptian word for “bald” is “is” or “ỉᶟs” , which defines the natural baldness. This article aims to be an analytical- descriptive study of the modes of representation related to baldness figures in ancient Egyptian private tombs, their different types of portrayal and interpretations. Moreover the article would find out if baldness was restricted to other specific diseases. The researcher would also discuss the relationship between baldness and social classes in the ancient Egyptian society based on examining a group of private tomb scenes and textual evidences, in order to present a broader overview of the physical disabilities in ancient Egyptian contexts. Complete baldness or the clean shaven depictions will not regard in this paper, as it will be so difficult and confusing to differentiate between natural baldness and the artificial cases.

Whither Occupational Class Health Gradients?: Why We Need More Social Class Theory, Mechanisms, Indicators, and Scientific Realism.

Whither Occupational Class Health Gradients?: Why We Need More Social Class Theory, Mechanisms, Indicators, and Scientific Realism.

Neo-Marxian social class inequalities in oral health among the South Korean population.

The aims of this study were to examine inequalities in periodontitis and tooth loss among South Korean adults using the Wright's Neo-Marxian social class (NMSC) indicator and to assess the impact of material, psychosocial, health behavioural and workplace environmental factors in the association of social class with oral health. This study used the data from the 4th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey with 6710 participants aged 19-54years old. Participants were classified into 12 social class positions based on the Wright's social class map. Healthy gum and absence of tooth loss were the health outcomes. Mediating factors were material (M), psychosocial (PS), health behavioural (HB) and workplace environmental (WPE) factors. A series of logistic regressions were performed to analyse the data. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to report the results. For the absence of periodontal pockets status, expert supervisors were the healthiest periodontal group among the social classes (OR=2.15 95% CI 1.59-2.90) in the age and gender adjusted model. For the absence of tooth loss, skilled workers had the highest OR for absence of tooth loss (OR=1.64 95% CI 1.31-2.05) in the age- and gender-adjusted model. For absence of periodontal pockets, the explanatory power of the M factor was the highest in all social class positions except for nonskilled supervisors followed by the HB factor. Additionally, the absence of tooth loss had a fairly similar pattern. The explanatory power of the M factor was the highest in all social class positions except for the petty bourgeoisie (highest: HB) and nonskilled supervisors (highest: WPE) followed by the HB and WPE factors. There were nongradient oral health inequalities among the South Korean population according to the NMSC. Oral health promotion programmes that focus on changing the socioeconomic environment and health behaviours should be implemented.

The role of English in developing countries

Research exploring the role of English in Pakistani education system usually focuses on the use of English as the medium of instruction. However, in this paper I argue that English language should also be discussed in the context of its indispensibility in social mobility and survival in Pakistan. In fact, English plays a number of crucial roles in some developing countries, of which Pakistan is one (Mansoor, 2003; Rahman, 2002). In Pakistan, English is one of the official languages and a prerequisite for professional jobs (Rahman, 2005). Because of its use in the domains of power, English can be seen as a source of self-improvement and as a means of career success (Mansoor, 2003; Rahman, 2002). Thus, the knowledge of English is a key indicator of social class and people consider it superior to other languages (Shamim, 2008). However, the use of English in education is one of the main sources of failure for many ordinary people (Bruthiaux, 2002). English is used as a control mechanism to play a gate-keeping role in access to higher education and key social positions (Coleman, 2010; Rahman, 2002). The imposition of English in education and its perceived prestige create additional problems for low socioeconomic status (SES) students who often have limited access to English.

Consumerism

The article investigates how consumerism is perceived as an unremarkable part of quotidian existence, as a patriotic duty at various moments, as an indicator of social class, and as a means of semiotic self-fashioning. In consumerism, the tension between the sumptuary restraint on conspicuous consumption, which characterized the early Protestant ethic, and the dependence of capitalism itself on boundless commodity circulation, emerges again and again. I investigate how certain forms of consumerism, relating to excess and improper storage, are reclassified in medical terms. I also investigate modes of strategic consumerism, which try to bridge the gap between producer and consumer, and how certain forms of performative labor are themselves consumed. I close with a few reflections on sites for future study: shopping as a form of underrecognized labor, and an auto-ethnographic turn for academics, inspecting the reach of consumerism into academic practices and universities themselves.

Social Class and Hospitalization in Canada

IntroductionDespite the existence of a universal health care system in Canada, there remains an inverse relationship between social class and health (Frohlich 2006). Those who identify as lower social class (operationalized with various indicators, including education, income, and occupation) have poorer outcomes across multiple health measures (Tang 2016).
 Objectives and ApproachThis study examines the link between social class and health care utilization, specifically hospitalization, in Canada. First, we examine the relationship between different indicators of social class and rates of hospitalization; next, we look at cause-specific hospitalizations. Using the unique dataset that contains the linked data for the 2006 Census with the Discharge Abstract Database for 2006-9, we explore the following research questions:
 
 Are the three main indicators of social class, education, income, and occupation, individually correlated with hospitalization rates overall, controlling for age and gender?
 Are certain indicators of social class more highly correlated with hospitalization rates, controlling for other indicators?
 
 ResultsWe access the linked files provided by Statistics Canada in the Prairie Research Data Centre. The long-form Census represents approximately 20\% of the Canadian population. The DAD includes data on hospitalizations in acute care facilities in Canada, with the exception of those in the province of Quebec. Approximately 4,650,000 long-form respondents were eligible for linkage to the DAD, and approximately 5.3\% of Census respondents were linked to at least one DAD record between 2006 and 2009. Our analyses are ongoing, but initial results suggest an inverse relationship between hospitalization and various measures of social class. Full results will be made available for presentation following vetting by Statistics Canada personnel.
 Conclusion/ImplicationsThis data provides us with a unique opportunity to examine the relationship between the detailed and rich measures of social class collected in the long-form Census and the comprehensive hospitalization data provided by the DAD records. Results will have implications for hospital health care provision across Canada.

The financialization of policy preferences: financial asset ownership, regulation and crisis management

AbstractPolitical economists have often drawn a hard line between the interests of owners of capital and the interests of labor. Yet over the past 30 years in Anglo-Saxon countries in particular, workers have become increasingly invested in capital markets activity through the privatization of pension systems and other incentives for market-based savings. In this article, we investigate whether this ‘financialization of everyday life’ has generated a convergence of policy preferences whereby individuals support policies traditionally associated with the financial sector. Using three separate datasets on the US population, we find evidence that financial asset ownership is associated with lower support for more stringent financial regulatory policy, and higher support for financial sector bailouts. Such effects on individual preferences are modest on average, but persist even when controlling for indicators of social class and a range of other conditions, circumstances and time periods.

The evolving retail structure of mexico city

A recent economic census of Mexico City reveals the complexity of the retail structure, in terms of stores, sales, and location of its various components, ranging from public markets to traditional retail streets to more modern innovations like shopping malls and power centers. Data from an origin–destination survey for transportation identifies the characteristics of customers for various destinations, and permit us to position the city within a general sequence of retail evolution, roughly linked to income, hence level of economic development. Traditional locations such as downtown, the public markets, and retail shopping streets, have a long history in the city and largely serve the low-income population. More modern retail developments such as shopping centers, supercenters, and power retail have recently emerged to serve the well-to-do. This bifurcation of retail facilities and their clients is exacerbated by the extreme income inequality in the city, and by the fact that the automobile has become a fundamental indicator of social class in Mexico City. Without a car, the household depends on the elements of traditional retail—public markets and nearby retail streets—whereas households with a car are able to shop in the facilities of modern retail: supercenters, shopping centers, and big box stores.

Educational equalization stalled? Trends in inequality of educational opportunity between 1930 and 1980 across 26 European nations

ABSTRACTThis article assesses trends over time in the influence of social origins on educational attainment in 26 European countries. We use a cumulative dataset that merges the European Social Survey (waves 2002–2010), the International Social Survey Programme (1999, 2009) and the European Value Study (2008). Our contribution to the literature is threefold. First, we replicate as closely as possible the previous study by Breen et al. [(2009) ‘Nonpersistent in educational attainment: Evidence from eight European countries’, American Journal of Sociology 114: 1475–1521] and extend it to a larger set of countries and to more recent cohorts. Second, we reassess the argument that equalization does not involve Higher Education. Third, we consider whether our conclusions change if we use a more comprehensive measurement of social origins that jointly incorporates indicators of social class, social status and parental education. We detect a generalized reduction of educational inequalities in the post-war decades. When we focus on Higher Education, we still detect evidence of equalization, although to a lower extent. Our analyses do not support the claim that, when using a more comprehensive treatment of social origins, the patterns for different indicators evolve in opposite directions.

Class, Culture and Culinary Tastes: Cultural Distinctions and Social Class Divisions in Contemporary Norway

In this article we analyse class cultures by mapping out differences in ‘original taste’; that is, respondents’ classed preferences for food and drink. By employing Multiple Correspondence Analysis, we produce a relational model of tastes. Using three indicators of social class – occupational class, income and education – we find clear class divisions. The upper and middle classes exhibit diverse and what are typically regarded as ‘healthy’ tastes; this contrasts with the more restricted and what are typically regarded as ‘less healthy’ tastes found among the working classes. Our findings challenge ongoing debates within cultural stratification research where it has become almost usual to demonstrate that the contemporary upper and middle classes exhibit playful tastes for the ‘cosmopolitan’ and the ‘exotic’. We find that upper- and middle-class households also enjoy very traditional foodstuffs. We argue that this illustrates a need for a relational understanding of taste: even the consumption of the traditional peasant food of pre-capitalist Norway can be refashioned as a badge of distinction in the 21st century.

Examining health literacy disparities in the United States: a third look at the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL).

BackgroundIn the United States, disparities in health literacy parallel disparities in health outcomes. Our research contributes to how diverse indicators of social inequalities (i.e., objective social class, relational social class, and social resources) contribute to understanding disparities in health literacy.MethodsWe analyze data on respondents 18 years of age and older (N = 14,592) from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) restricted access data set. A series of weighted Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression models estimate the association between respondent’s demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status (SES), relational social class, social resources and an Item Response Theory (IRT) based health literacy measure.ResultsOur findings are consistent with previous research on the social and SES determinants of health literacy. However, our findings reveal the importance of relational social status for understanding health literacy disparities in the United States. Objective indicators of social status are persistent and robust indicators of health literacy. Measures of relational social status such as civic engagement (i.e., voting, volunteering, and library use) are associated with higher health literacy levels net of objective resources. Social resources including speaking English and marital status are associated with higher health literacy levels.ConclusionsRelational indicators of social class are related to health literacy independent of objective social class indicators. Civic literacy (e.g., voting and volunteering) are predictors of health literacy and offer opportunities for health intervention. Our findings support the notion that health literacy is a social construct and suggest the need to develop a theoretically driven conceptual definition of health literacy that includes a civic literacy component.

Social-class indicators differentially predict engagement in prevention vs. detection behaviours

Objective: Few systematic studies have examined the contexts in which social-class variables will predict engagement in health-relevant behaviours. The current research examined whether the impact of social-class on health behaviours depends upon how social-class is assessed and the category of health behaviour under consideration.Method: Our sample was drawn from the Health Information National Trends Survey in 2012 (N = 3959). Participants reported their income and education as well as their engagement in a variety of prevention and detection behaviours.Results: Consistent with our hypothesised framework, we found that income predicted engagement in a variety of detection behaviours above and beyond education, whereas education predicted engagement in a variety of prevention behaviours above and beyond income.Conclusions: Our findings suggest that income and education operate on health behaviours via different pathways and have implications for public health policy and intervention.