Indicator Of Developmental Instability Research Articles

Body Size and Symmetry Properties of Termite Soldiers Under Two Intraspecific Competition Scenarios

Single-piece nesting termites live and forage in the same piece of wood throughout their life, which limit their colony size. In certain species, more than one colony thrive in a given piece of wood (multicolonial substrate) and intraspecific competition become important in this limited resource, as has been reported in Zootermopsis nevadensis (Hagen, 1858) and Neotermes chilensis (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae) (Blanchard, 1851). The effects of such competition have been described mainly at population and colony levels rather than at the individual level. In eusocial insects such as termites, intraspecific competition constitutes a stress factor imposed to a colony as a whole and should also cause developmental instability in soldiers produced under such conditions. Investment in the production of soldiers involves a trade-off between colony maintenance costs and defense benefits. Hence, we hypothesize that body size and fluctuating asymmetry, two indicators of developmental instability, will increase when two or more colonies of N. chilensis share a piece of wood (high intraspecific competition scenario). Our results showed that soldiers developing in multicolonial substrates were indeed larger and more asymmetric than soldiers developing in unicolonial substrates. The large body size in a soldier could improve its chance to win a physical contest with a non-nestmate opponent; thus, despite the high cost to produce large soldiers in small colonies, larger soldier production could be an adaptative strategy to avoid being outcompeted. However, the effects of deviations from perfect symmetry on soldier performance are not clear.

Stress induced by substantial skeletal deformities in pike fry is not reflected in otolith fluctuating asymmetry: An experiment and literature review

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), an indicator of developmental instability, has been suggested to serve as a useful bioindicator of the fitness and condition of various groups of animals, including fish. The current study aimed to determine whether skeletal and body deformities of northern pike fry (3–12 cm standard length SL) reared under laboratory conditions imposed stress that was reflected in FA in otolith size (area). Although hatchery-reared fish were studied, FA also occurs in natural conditions and may indicate harmful effects of different environmental factors, including water pollution. Both the sagitta and lapillus were analyzed in fish with (n = 60) and without (n = 60) skeletal deformities. Despite the severity of deformity and extended duration of stress exposure (from hatching to ca. 2–3 months of life), there was no significant effect of the stressor on otolith FA, neither for sagittae nor lapilli. An overview of the literature indicated that links between stressors and fish otolith FA are not common (found in 9 out of 31 investigations). Thus, otolith FA is probably not an appropriate bioindicator for detecting the effects of different stressors, including pollution, despite previous suggestions.

Determination of type of asymmetry in hand dimensions and its relationship with body mass index

Several documented evidences have indicated high influence of diseases on developmental instability measurable by asymmetry, there is however scarcity of reports on the type of asymmetry in hand and limited attempts to determine its relationship with body mass index (BMI) especially among Hausa population. The study was aimed to determine type(s) of asymmetry in hand dimensions and its relationship with BMI from selected tertiary institution in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. The study was cross sectional type which involved a total of 398 students (204 males and 194 females). The hand dimensions (digits length, palmer length and hand breadth) were measured using standard protocol. Body mass index was calculated from the measured height and weight. Asymmetry was determined as right-hand dimension minus left hand dimension (A = R-L). One sample t test was used to determine the type of asymmetry in hand dimensions. Pearson’s correlation was used to determine the correlation between the asymmetry and BMI. The results of the study showed that digit length, hand breadth and palmar length exhibited directional asymmetry (DA). The degree of the DA was more expressed in index digit followed by middle digit and the least was the ring digit. The nature of DA in the hand dimensions was left warded except for the hand breadth which was observed to be right warded. There was no significant correlation observed between asymmetry in hand dimensions with BMI. In conclusion, there were no significant correlations between hand asymmetry and BMI among the studied Hausa population and hand dimensions exhibited directional type of asymmetry, as such may not be used as a surrogate indicator of developmental instability.

A fungal parasite selects against body size but not fluctuating asymmetry in Swiss subalpine yellow dung flies

Evidence for selective disadvantages of large body size remains scarce in general. Previous studies of the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria have demonstrated strong positive sexual and fecundity selection on male and female size. Nevertheless, the body size of flies from a Swiss study population has declined by ~10% 1993–2009. Given substantial heritability of body size, this negative evolutionary response of an evidently positively selected trait suggests important selective factors being missed. An episodic epidemic outbreak of the fungus Entomophthora scatophagae permitted assessment of natural selection exerted by this fatal parasite. Fungal infection varied over the season from ~50% in the cooler and more humid spring and autumn to almost 0% in summer. The probability of dying from fungal infection increased with adult fly body size. Females never laid any eggs after infection, so there was no fungus effect on female fecundity beyond its impact on mortality. Large males showed their typical mating advantage in the field, but this positive sexual selection was nullified by fungal infection. Mean fluctuating asymmetry of paired appendages (legs, wings) did not affect the viability, fecundity or mating success of yellow dung flies in the field. This study documents rare parasite-mediated disadvantages of large-sized flies in the field. Reduced ability to combat parasites such as Entomophthora may be an immunity cost of large body size in dung flies, although the hypothesized trade-off between fluctuating asymmetry, a presumed indicator of developmental instability and environmental stress, and immunocompetence was not found here.

Drosophilid species (Insecta, Diptera) in the Brazilian savanna are more symmetric in the dry season

The development of an organism is a controlled process, which can be disrupted by genetic or environmental stress. Although fluctuating asymmetry is widely used as an indicator of developmental instability, its effectiveness has been questioned due to the contradictory results produced by this technique which, at least in part, probably reflects methodological inappropriateness. Here, we investigated if wing asymmetry of drosophilids increases when they develop during the dry season in the Brazilian savanna, considered a stressful season for these insects. Using protocols designed to avoid methodological problems, we analysed the wings of Zaprionus indianus and three species of the genus Drosophila (D. mercatorum, D. simulans, and D. sturtevanti). Surprisingly, the flies were more asymmetrical in the rainy season than in the dry season, although this difference was not always significant. It is suggested that the wings of these insects are submitted to strong natural selection throughout the dry season, when the asymmetric individuals would have less chance of surviving. During the wet season, on the other hand, selective pressures would be more relaxed. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that asymmetry of the wings is not a good indicator of natural environmental stress in drosophilids. Future research should focus on selectively neutral characters.

Fluctuating Asymmetry and Sexual Dimorphism in Human Facial Morphology: A Multi-Variate Study.

Fluctuating asymmetry is often used as an indicator of developmental instability, and is proposed as a signal of genetic quality. The display of prominent masculine phenotypic features, which are a direct result of high androgen levels, is also believed to be a sign of genetic quality, as these hormones may act as immunosuppressants. Fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity are therefore expected to covary. However, there is lack of strong evidence in the literature regarding this hypothesis. In this study, we examined a large dataset of high-density 3D facial scans of 1260 adults (630 males and 630 females). We mapped a high-density 3D facial mask onto the facial scans in order to obtain a high number of quasi-landmarks on the faces. Multi-dimensional measures of fluctuating asymmetry were extracted from the landmarks using Principal Component Analysis, and masculinity/femininity scores were obtained for each face using Partial Least Squares. The possible correlation between these two qualities was then examined using Pearson's coefficient and Canonical Correlation Analysis. We found no correlation between fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity in men. However, a weak but significant correlation was found between average fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity in women, in which feminine faces had higher levels of fluctuating asymmetry on average. This correlation could possibly point to genetic quality as an underlying mechanism for both asymmetry and masculinity; however, it might also be driven by other fitness or life history traits, such as fertility. Our results question the idea that fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity should be (more strongly) correlated in men, which is in line with the recent literature. Future studies should possibly focus more on the evolutionary relevance of the observed correlation in women.

Measuring asymmetry from high-density 3D surface scans: An application to human faces.

Perfect bilateral symmetry is the optimal outcome of the development of bilateral traits in the absence of developmental perturbations. Any random perturbation in this perfect symmetrical state is called Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA). Many studies have been conducted on FA as an indicator of Developmental Instability (DI) and its possible link with stress and individual quality in general and with attractiveness, health and level of masculinity or femininity in humans. Most human studies of facial asymmetry use 2D pictures and a limited number of landmarks. We developed a protocol to utilize high-density 3D scans of human faces to measure the level of asymmetry. A completely symmetric spatially dense anthropometric mask with paired vertices is non-rigidly mapped on target faces using an Iterative Closest Point (ICP) registration algorithm. A set of 19 manually indicated landmarks were used to validate the mapping precision. The protocol’s accuracy in FA calculation is assessed, and results show that a spatially dense approach is more accurate. In addition, it generates an integrated asymmetry estimate across the entire face. Finally, the automatic nature of the protocol provides a great advantage by omitting the tedious step of manual landmark indication on the biological structure of interest.

Experience of applying plant and animal fluctuating asymmetry in assessment of environmental quality in terrestrial ecosystems: Results of 20-year studies of wildlife and anthropogenically transformed territories

The value of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of trees and small mammals is considered as an indicator of developmental instability. The urban territories with recreation zones, sites with increased radiation background, and the areas affected by mining facilities have been analyzed as anthropogenically transformed areas. The following tree and small mammalian species are the objects of the study: Siberian silver birch (Betula platyphylla), spreading birch (B. divaricata), dwarf birch (B. exilis), shrub alder (Duschekia fruticosa), basket willow (Salix viminalis), northern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rutilus), tundra vole (Microtus oeconomus), Laxmann’s shrew (Sorex caecutiens), and tundra shrew (S. tundrensis). In total, 60000 leaves have been measured and 3500 rodent sculls have been examined. The issues of selection of bioindicator species and the factors distorting the results of environmental quality assessment according to developmental instability are discussed. A statistically significant increase in FA of plants is recorded in urban territories as compared with the wildlife biotopes. A positive correlation of FA value with transport load, concentration of heavy metals in soil, and atmospheric air pollution is observed. The proximity to a roadway and the state of road pavement influence the FA value. The main source of pollution in the administrative center (Yakutsk) is motor vehicles; correspondingly, large streets and crossroads with a high transport load are the most polluted sites. As for the industrial center (city of Mirnyi), pollution spreads from the areas affected by mining to the residential area. The main pollution source in a small administrative center (city of Aldan) is the federal highway. It is recommended to concurrently use the FA characteristics of plant and animals in the area affected by the mining industry. Characteristic of this industry is withdrawal of large areas of natural landscapes; typically, transformed plots alternate weakly affected plots. The specific features of the effects of diamond, gold, and coalmining industries, as well as oil and gas field development, are discussed, which should be taken into account in sampling for bioindication. The problem of bioindication in the areas completely devoid of soil and plant cover can be solved by biotesting via assessment of bunching onion seed germination rate and the rate of mitotic aberrations. An increase in the FA level in trees and small mammals is observed in the areas transformed by the mining industry displaying a chronically increased radiation background and oil-polluted as a result of technogenic accidents. The use of FA index makes it possible to estimate the environmental quality and to compare the state of territories located under different natural and climatic conditions and influenced by multicomponent anthropogenic impacts differing in their strength and genesis, which interferes with their comparison.

The association of three indicators of developmental instability with mating success in humans

Developmental instability (DI) has been proposed to relate negatively to aspects of evolutionary fitness, like mating success. One suggested indicator is fluctuating asymmetry (FA), random deviations from perfect symmetry in bilateral bodily traits. A meta-analytically robust negative association between FA and number of lifetime sexual partners has been previously shown in men and women. We examined the relationship between bodily FA across twelve traits and indicators of quantitative mating success in 284 individuals (141 males, age 19–30 years). Two further indicators of DI, minor physical anomalies (MPAs) and asymmetry in palmar atd angles, were also assessed. For men, no significant associations were detected, whereas for women, unexpected positive relationships of FA with the number of lifetime sexual partners and one-night stands emerged. Thus, in a large sample and using a more highly aggregated FA index, our study fails to replicate previous findings, though equivalence testing also did not support deviation from previous meta-analytic estimates, especially for men. No associations were found for MPAs and FA in atd angles in either sex.

Androgen Levels and Body Size Are Associated with Directional as Well as Fluctuating Asymmetry Patterns in Adult !Kung San and Kavango Males from Northern Namibia

Fluctuating asymmetry is mainly interpreted as an indicator of developmental instability, while directional asymmetry of the upper limbs is associated with handedness. The association patterns between adult androgen levels and fluctuating as well directional asymmetry patterns are still unclear. In the present study, the association between adult androgen levels, body size and directional as well as fluctuating asymmetry pattern was tested among !Kung San and Kavango males from northern Namibia. Serum concentrations of testosterone (Tser) and 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) as well as salivary testosterone (Tsal) concentrations were obtained from 114 !Kung San and 136 Kavango men aged 18–40 years. Fluctuating and directional asymmetry were determined from eight paired traits. Signed and unsigned asymmetry, composite fluctuating and directional asymmetry were calculated. !Kung San males surpassed their Kavango counterparts in the directional asymmetry but also in composite directional asymmetry (CDA) significantly. Among !Kung San males, DHT correlated significantly negatively with parameters of fluctuating asymmetry as well as with parameters of directional asymmetry. Free testosterone of the saliva correlated significantly negatively with asymmetry of hand length. Among Kavango males, DHT is negatively associated with foot breadth asymmetry, but positively associated with wrist asymmetry. Although the correlations between asymmetry patterns and androgen levels are weak, it can be concluded that among !Kung San males adult androgen levels are negatively associated with a high quality phenotype.

Developmental instability and its relationship to mental health in two historic Dutch populations

This study aimed to assess the magnitude and patterns of fluctuating asymmetry as an indicator of developmental instability between two urban archeological Dutch populations. The sample comprised of 209 adult individuals representing the general population of Alkmaar, the Netherlands, dating to the 18th to early 19th century (Grote Kerk, n=134), and a psychiatric hospital sample of the 19th to early 20th century (Meerenberg, n=75). Fluctuating asymmetry was assessed from left and right measurements recorded from various traits on the cranium, mandible, and dentition. Three non-specific skeletal indicators of stress were documented to aid in the interpretation of the differences in asymmetry. No significant difference in developmental instability, as reflected by fluctuating asymmetry, was apparent between the two populations. However, individuals who presented with skeletal lesions indicative of stress were significantly more asymmetric than individuals who did not present with any of the lesions. The observed frequencies of the pathological changes and socio-economic history suggest that the two populations experienced similar levels of stress, even though the source and duration of the stress might have been different. The possibility that the mentally institutionalized are not as developmentally unstable as suggested by previous research should be considered.

Mercury exposure may influence fluctuating asymmetry in waterbirds.

Variation in avian bilateral symmetry can be an indicator of developmental instability in response to a variety of stressors, including environmental contaminants. The authors used composite measures of fluctuating asymmetry to examine the influence of mercury concentrations in 2 tissues on fluctuating asymmetry within 4 waterbird species. Fluctuating asymmetry increased with mercury concentrations in whole blood and breast feathers of Forster's terns (Sterna forsteri), a species with elevated mercury concentrations. Specifically, fluctuating asymmetry in rectrix feather 1 was the most strongly correlated structural variable of those tested (wing chord, tarsus, primary feather 10, rectrix feather 6) with mercury concentrations in Forster's terns. However, for American avocets (Recurvirostra americana), black-necked stilts (Himantopus mexicanus), and Caspian terns (Hydroprogne caspia), the authors found no relationship between fluctuating asymmetry and either whole-blood or breast feather mercury concentrations, even though these species had moderate to elevated mercury exposure. The results indicate that mercury contamination may act as an environmental stressor during development and feather growth and contribute to fluctuating asymmetry of some species of highly contaminated waterbirds. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1599-1605. Published 2016 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

Fluctuating asymmetry in leaves and flowers of sympatric species in a tropical montane environment

AbstractFluctuating asymmetry (FA) represents small, random variations in traits, presumably with bilateral symmetry, and is widely used as a tool to measure developmental instability in plants and animals. Because FA is a quick, simple and reliable measure, it has been frequently used for monitoring levels of environmental stress. This study investigated whether FA can be used as a predictor of individual developmental instability for four sympatric Melastomataceae species. To achieve that aim, 20 individuals of Trembleya laniflora, T. parviflora, Lavoisiera campos‐portoana and Tibouchina heteromalla were marked in southeastern Brazil and monitored before and during the flowering season. The FA index was calculated as the mean of the difference in the width or length between the left and right sides measured for each leaf or flower. All studied species exhibited asymmetry in the leaves and flowers, but the leaves of L. campos‐portoana and the petal width of T. heteromalla exhibited directional asymmetry, also an indicator of developmental instability. The highest level of leaf asymmetry was found in T. heteromalla and on flowers of L. campos‐portoana. None of the studied species exhibited a significant relationship between the FA level of the leaves and flowers on an individual basis, indicating that environmental and/or genetic sources of stress might act differently on different plant traits. For the studied species, measurements of FA can be suggested as useful tools to biomonitor levels of stress experienced by both leaves and flowers within the Melastomataceae family.

Testing the relationship between domestication and developmental instability in rainbow trout,Oncorhynchus mykiss(Teleostei, Salmonidae)

Fish domestication is an evolutionary process arising in captivity through genetic and developmental mechanisms, producing organisms performing more poorly than wild conspecifics in the natural environment. Culture conditions could be suboptimal for fish at particular life cycle stages, presenting environmental disturbances leading to developmental instability. The limited size of captive lots, moreover, can result in the loss of genetic variation, and the resulting homozygosity (as well as hybridization and mutation) could have strong harmful effects on developmental stability. Rainbow trout are the most widely-cultured species in Europe and North America, having been in culture for more than a century. Prolonged artificial selection for desired traits and incidental effects of domestication has led to the development of a ‘farmed type’. Fluctuating asymmetry, variations in meristic counts, and skeletal anomalies were examined in several rainbow trout captive and wild clonal lines as indicators of developmental instability. Differences in developmental stability were identified among lines and correlated with different degrees of exposure to captivity. Some relationship between meristic counts and domestication level was found in the present study, with the number of vertebrae and of dorsal pterygiophores and rays being the strongest predictors of the domestication level. However, the occurrence of skeletal anomalies and fluctuating asymmetry were apparently not related to the level of exposure to captivity. The findings of the present study will facilitate the selection of clonal lines with divergent phenotypes for subsequent quantitative trait loci analyses aimed at identifying genome regions linked with morpho-anatomical and physiological adaptive responses to captivity.

Fluctuating asymmetry and inbreeding in Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus)

We investigated fluctuating asymmetry in 13 traits of the skulls and jaws of historical and contemporary populations of Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus). We hypothesized that there is a higher level of fluctuating asymmetry in the inbred contemporary population than in the historical population. Our analyses did not detect any difference in the level of fluctuating asymmetry as predicted. We propose different explanation for this lack of change in fluctuating asymmetry. It is assumed that a large number of studies have failed to find a positive correlation between the level of genetic stress and developmental instability and have therefore never been published, which hampers a good understanding of fluctuating asymmetry as an indicator of developmental instability. The current study is thus important in this context. The gray wolf population in Scandinavia is characterized by an extreme bottleneck followed by two and a half decades of strong inbreeding, but no associated change in fluctuating asymmetry is detected.

Abundance, reproduction, and seed predation of an alpine plant decrease from the center toward the range limit

Biogeographic models predict that, because of increasingly unfavorable and stressful conditions, populations become less frequent, smaller, less dense, and less reproductive toward the range edges. These models have greatly influenced the thinking on geographical range limits and have broad implications for ecology, evolution, and conservation. However, empirical tests of the models have rarely investigated comprehensive sets of population properties. We studied population size and density and a broad set of fitness-related traits in 66 populations of the alpine thistle Carduus defloratus along a latitudinal (615 km) and altitudinal (342-2300 m) gradient from the European Alps in the south to the northern range limit in the low mountain ranges of central Germany. Regression analysis indicated that population size and plant density declined with decreasing altitude from the center to the range margin, but plant size increased. In spite of the larger size of plants, the number of seeds produced strongly declined toward the range margin, mainly due to an increase in seed abortion. The number of flowering plants in a population influenced all components of reproduction. Plants in large populations initiated more seeds, aborted fewer seeds, and produced more and larger seeds per plant. The probability that seeds were attacked by insect larvae and the proportion of seeds damaged decreased strongly from the center to the margin of the distribution. However, in spite of the much lower level of parasitization, plants at the range margin produced far fewer viable seeds. Fluctuating asymmetry of leaf width, an indicator of developmental instability, was similar across the range and not related to population size.

Zinc and cadmium accumulation in cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) host plants and developmental instability

AbstractDevelopmental instability in morphological characters can occur during individual development due to various environmental stresses. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is often used as a measurement of developmental instability, but within‐environment variation (CVe) is also considered an indicator of developmental instability. Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) populations were reared on zinc‐ (Zn) or cadmium‐ (Cd) contaminated cabbage and radish plants. Developmental instability indicators were measured and their relations with fitness were explored. Results revealed that cabbage aphids exposed to Cd and Zn displayed considerable developmental instability, particularly fluctuating asymmetry. Differences in developmental instability between the two metals were also detected, as well as differences between the two developmental instability measurements. For almost all measured traits, FA was greater on Cd‐ and Zn‐contaminated compared to non‐contaminated host plants. In contrast, CVe of some traits was greater on non‐contaminated host plants, yet for other traits CVe was greater on contaminated host plants. There were also non‐significant inverse relationships between FA and fitness of cabbage aphid populations. Due to weak correlations between FA and different patterns of two developmental instability measurements, this study does not support the hypothesis that developmental instability is a useful bioindicator of environmental quality.

Fluctuating asymmetry and general intelligence: No genetic or phenotypic association

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is the non-pathological left–right asymmetry of body traits that are usually left–right symmetrical, such as eye breadths and elbow to wrist lengths in humans, but which can be affected by developmental stressors. It is generally considered throughout biology to be an indicator of developmental instability and thus of lack of overall biological fitness. Several investigators have proposed that deficiencies in general intelligence ( g) may be indicators of the same kind of instability in human brain development. If so, FA and g should be negatively correlated. Moreover, because g shows substantial genetic influences, FA should also show genetic influences, and the two sets of genetic influences should be correlated. We investigated these propositions in a sample of 263 adults that included 88 pairs of twins. Results indicated genetic influences on FA, but FA and g were not correlated at either the observed or genetic levels.

Fluctuating asymmetry and stress in a medieval Nubian population

Fluctuating asymmetry is commonly used as a bioindicator of developmental stress. This study addresses asymmetry under nutritional/systemic stress in the human craniofacial skeleton and its utility as an indicator of developmental instability. Crania from the diachronic Christian cemeteries at Kulubnarti (Sudanese Nubia) were chosen as a model for nutrition/systemic stress. Previous studies indicate that individuals from the Early Christian cemetery were subjected to greater developmental stress when compared with individuals from the Late Christian cemetery. Therefore, crania from the Early Christian cemetery should display a greater magnitude of fluctuating asymmetry than crania from the Late Christian cemetery. Thirty adult crania of comparable age and sex were selected from each population. Landmark coordinates were digitized in two separate trials and averaged to minimize error. Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA) was used to measure and compare the magnitude of fluctuating asymmetry in each sample. Results indicate that crania from the Early Christian cemetery display greater amounts of fluctuating asymmetry than those from the Late Christian cemetery, as predicted. The degree of fluctuating asymmetry for each linear distance is highly correlated between the cemeteries, suggesting that all humans may share common patterns of fluctuating asymmetry in the skull. In contrast, there is little correlation between magnitude of fluctuating asymmetry and length of linear distance, between-subject variability, or measurement error. These results support the hypothesis that poor nutrition/systemic stress increases developmental instability in the human skull and that increased fluctuating asymmetry constitutes morphological evidence of this stress.

Fluctuating Asymmetry of Leaves in Digitalis thapsi under Field and Common Garden Conditions

The degree of developmental instability has been hypothesized to reflect the level of environmental and genetic stress. However, levels of fluctuating asymmetry or other indicators of developmental instability are rarely measured in the same populations under field and common garden conditions, making it difficult to determine whether differences in asymmetry derived from field measurements are simply phenotypic or genetic in origin. We studied fluctuating asymmetry of leaves in three populations of Digitalis thapsi L. that differed dramatically in mean seed production under field conditions and when reared in a common garden. While absolute asymmetry decreased with leaf position, there was no position effect on relative asymmetry after adjustment for leaf width. Absolute and relative asymmetry did not differ between seedlings and mature plants in the greenhouse. There was no significant difference in absolute or relative asymmetry of leaves between plants grown in the greenhouse and in the field, although there was a significant $$\mathrm{population}\,\,\times \,\mathrm{rearing}\,$$ environment interaction. The number of leaves and the maximum length and width of leaves of mature plants reared in the common garden differed among populations. Fluctuating asymmetry in leaves was not significantly correlated with any measure of vegetative growth or reproduction. These findings indicate that the effects of environmental conditions and selection may override the effects of inherent differences. Thus, conclusions about levels of developmental instability in different populations based on field studies may differ considerably from conclusions based on results from common garden experiments.