Rhinoceros Unicornis Research Articles

Serum 25(OH)D Analysis in Captive Pachyderms (Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus, Diceros bicornis, Rhinoceros unicornis, Tapirus indicus) in Europe.

This study aimed to detect seasonal and species differences in serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations during summer and winter months in captive pachyderms in Europe. Both elephant species had low 25(OH)D while African elephants did not show a seasonal variation. Asian elephants had significantly higher 25(OH)D compared to their African counterparts but also did not show a seasonal difference. Both rhinoceros species investigated had higher 25(OH)D compared to both elephant species; the Indian rhinoceros had high circulating levels year-round, while the black rhinoceroses showed significantly lower 25(OH)D in winter. Malayan tapirs have very low 25(OH)D, comparable to horses. The higher 25(OH)D of elephants and rhinoceroses could indicate that elephants and rhinoceroses are capable of producing vitamin D. This might indicate that the Indian rhinoceroses are capable of producing enough endogenous vitamin D year-round at latitudes around 52° N, while both elephant species and the black rhinoceros are not. This study also showed that it is likely that both elephant species and rhinoceros species are capable of absorbing cholecalciferol from the digestive tract, according to the existing literature, while tapirs may not.

The Conservation Challenge: Environmental and Legal Aspects of One-Horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) Protection in India

The natural environment, with its lush landscapes and diverse ecosystems, serves as a vital refuge for a wide array of majestic animals and vibrant plant life, playing a crucial role in maintaining the delicate balance of our planet's ecological systems. One particularly remarkable species, the Greater One-Horned Rhino, faces the serious and pressing threat of being classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to rampant poaching and the relentless loss of its natural habitat. In the Indian subcontinent, home to a significant population of these incredible creatures, the rhino's existence is under severe jeopardy, leading to distressing conflicts between human communities and the rhinos as the animals venture beyond protected areas in search of sustenance. Despite the presence of both national and international regulations, the peril to their existence persists, casting a shadow over their future. It is imperative that we take swift and effective measures to safeguard this magnificent species. This paper is dedicated to thoroughly examining the status of the Greater One-Horned Rhinos and to proposing practical and viable solutions aimed at ensuring their protection and survival for generations to come.

Detection and characterization of vector-borne parasites and Wolbachia endosymbionts in greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Nepal

Vector-borne parasite infections affect both domestic and wild animals. They are often asymptomatic but can result in fatal outcomes under natural and human-induced stressors. Given the limited availability of molecular data on vector-borne parasites in Rhinoceros unicornis (greater one-horned rhinoceros), this study employed molecular tools to detect and characterize the vector-borne parasites in rescued rhinoceros in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Whole blood samples were collected from thirty-six R. unicornis during rescue and treatment operations. Piroplasmida infections were first screened using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting 18S ribosomal RNA gene. Wolbachia was detected by amplifying 16S rRNA gene, while filarial nematodes were detected through amplification of 28S rRNA, COI, myoHC and hsp70 genes. Our results confirmed the presence of Theileria bicornis with a prevalence of 75% (27/36) having two previously unreported haplotypes (H8 and H9). Wolbachia endosymbionts were detected in 25% (9/36) of tested samples and belonged to either supergroup C or F. Filarial nematodes of the genera Mansonella and Onchocerca were also detected. There were no significant association between T. bicornis infections and the age, sex, or location from which the animals were rescued. The high prevalence of Theileria with novel haplotypes along with filarial parasites has important ecological and conservational implications and highlights the need to implement parasite surveillance programs for wildlife in Nepal. Further studies monitoring vector-borne pathogens and interspecies transmission among wild animals, livestock and human are required.

Seed dispersal effectiveness by greater one-horned rhinos and domestic bovids of a megafaunal fruit

The extinction of megafauna, such as rhinos, from tropical Asian forests may have detrimental effects on the regeneration of plant species that rely heavily on their dispersal services. Understanding the potential of other animals to substitute the ecological function of megafauna is important for predicting ecosystem change following declines or extirpation of megafauna. Anthropogenic activities have led to the presence of domestic bovids in many tropical habitats, and these animals could be capable of substituting seed dispersal roles of megafauna. Here, we conducted feeding trials, germination tests, and collected movement data on greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) and domestic bovids (Bos primigenius; Bubalus bubalis) in the national parks of Chitwan and Shuklaphanta, Nepal. Our aim was to investigate whether domestic bovids can serve as effective substitutes for rhinos in dispersing the megafaunal-fruited Mallotus nudiflorus, which are specialized for rhino dispersal. Specifically, we assessed the long-distance seed dispersal capabilities of rhinos and bovids by combining gut passage times and movement patterns. Additionally, we compared the seed germination success rates among rhinos, bovids and other dispersal modes (e.g., deer and water dispersal). We found that rhinos dispersed 80 percent of seeds over distances greater than 1 km, with potential dispersal distances of up to approximately 5.4 km within their maximum gut passage time. In contrast, cattle dispersed 20 percent of seeds over 1 km, with a maximum distance of around 2.2 km, while buffaloes dispersed 15 percent of seeds over 1 km, with a maximum distance of around 1.4 km. Seeds consumed by rhinos exhibited similar or better germination rates compared to seeds retrieved from cattle and buffalo dung, as well as other dispersal modes. These findings indicate that rhinos provide a functionally unique dispersal service for this megafaunal fruit, especially in long-distance dispersal. While domestic bovids can partially substitute the seed dispersal functions of rhinos, they cannot fully compensate for the loss of seed dispersal that occurs with the disappearance of rhinos.

Unveiling the mysteries of Asian herbivores resource partitioning in tropical wet-grassland ecosystem

Ecological niche partitioning is fundamental for the coexistence of sympatric species. However, the relationship between herbivore body size and forage availability on resource segregation and selection remains debatable. This study quantifies the niche differentiation and selectivity of forage species consumed by six Asian large herbivores (SLH), including mega-herbivores like Greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and Asiatic wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee), and meso-herbivores like swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii), hog deer (Axis porcinus) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) in tropical wet-grasslands of the Brahmaputra floodplains. We hypothesized that body size influences dietary niche breadth and interspecific dietary similarities or dissimilarities, while forage availability influences forage selectivity among Asian herbivores. We used micro-histological technique, harvest method and Jacobs Index to quantify SLH foraging patterns, forage availability and preference, respectively. Results of the study revealed high niche breadth for elephant (0.56>Bs≤0.74) among mega-herbivores and for sambar (0.49>Bs≤0.64) among meso-herbivores. SLH showed a significant positive correlation between body size and niche breadth in wet season. High dietary overlap was recorded between buffalo and hog deer (0.79–0.86) and swamp deer and hog deer (0.75–0.86) among SLH, rhino and buffalo (0.80–0.83) among mega-herbivores, and swamp deer and hog deer (0.75–0.86) among meso-herbivores. High dietary dissimilarity was recorded between elephant and swamp deer (36–37 %), elephant and buffalo (27–33 %), and swamp deer and sambar (27–29 %). Compared to dry season (1354.54 ±641.30 g m˗2), significantly higher biomass was recorded in wet season (3026.93 ±1632.65 g m˗2; p<0.05). From dry to wet season, rhino, buffalo and hog deer shift their preferred forage from dicot to monocot. Dicot was the most preferred forage of elephant among mega-herbivores, and monocot of swamp deer and sambar among meso-herbivores. Mega- and meso-herbivores avoid invasives Merremia umbellata and Mimosa spp., while meso-herbivores avoid Mikania micrantha. Body size explains niche partitioning only for rhino, elephant and swamp deer. Forage availability contributed to niche breadth and forage preference. In conclusion, forage segregation, despite being challenging to interpret at taxonomic level, influences niche partitioning among mega- and meso-herbivores.

Participatory Security as Form of Control: Kaziranga National Park, India

Abstract ‘More security, more conservation’ is the mantra utilised by the Indian forest service to ensure the protection of flora and fauna. Aligned with international agreements aiming at securing wildlife and preserving forests, the Union and the State governments of India have adopted a series of green measures to ensure both the securitisation and participation of local communities in conservation efforts. This research article illustrates how participatory forms of conservation are employed to complement the securitisation of conservation, serving as a means to indirectly control people’s lives and create new environmental subjects. It does so through a case study of Kaziranga National Park, a biodiversity conservation hotspot in the northeastern state of Assam, renowned for the successful conservation of the Greater One-horned Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis. This ‘success’ emerges amidst critiques of its violent and militarised anti-poaching conservation measures and the efforts deployed to protect the rhino ‘at any cost’. The research article analyses the participatory protection mechanisms supported by state and non-state agencies to ensure the conservation of Kaziranga, primarily carried out through the revitalisation of two bodies: the eco-development committee and the voluntary defence organisation. The results demonstrate how soft forms of violence complement hard forms, thereby supporting a broader process of structural violence and national building in Assam. It shows how participatory mechanisms are used as ‘counterinsurgency practices.’ Abstract in Hindi: rb.gy/rhcrzz

GUT MICROBIOME DIVERSITY OF THREE RHINOCEROS SPECIES IN EUROPEAN ZOOS.

The wild rhinoceros populations have declined drastically in the past decades because the rhinoceros are heavily hunted for their horns. Zoological institutions aim to conserve rhinoceros populations in captivity, but one of the challenges of ex situ conservation is to provide food sources that resemble those available in the wild. Considering that the mammalian gut microbiota is a pivotal player in their host's health, the gut microbiota of rhinoceros may also play a role in the bioavailability of nutrients. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the fecal microbiome composition of grazing white rhinoceros (WR; Ceratotherium simum) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (GOHR; Rhinoceros unicornis) as well as the browsing black rhinoceros (BR; Diceros bicornis) kept in European zoos. Over the course of 1 yr, 166 fecal samples in total were collected from 9 BR (n = 39), 10 GOHR (n = 56), and 14 WR (n = 71) from 23 zoological institutions. The bacterial composition in the samples was determined using 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing. The fecal microbiomes of rhinoceros clustered by species, with BR clustering more distantly from GOHR and WR. Furthermore, the data report clustering of rhinoceros microbiota according to individual rhinoceros and institutional origin, showing that zoological institutions play a significant role in shaping the gut microbiome of rhinoceros species. In addition, BR exhibit a relatively higher microbial diversity than GOHR and WR. BR seem more susceptible to microbial gut changes and appear to have a more diverse microbiome composition among individuals than GOHR and WR. These data expand on the role of gut microbes and can provide baseline data for continued efforts in rhinoceros conservation and health status.

Vesicular stomatitis virus in two species of rhinoceros at a California zoological park.

To describe an outbreak of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) in southern white rhinoceros (SWR; Ceratotherium simum simum) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (GOHR; Rhinoceros unicornis) at a safari park in San Diego, CA, from May to September 2023. 21 SWR and 5 GOHR in professionally managed care. Rhinoceros of both species presented with a range of clinical signs and severities. Lesion locations were categorized as cutaneous (coronary bands, heels and soles, limbs, ventrum, neck folds, and ears) and mucocutaneous (lips, nostrils, mucous membranes of the oral cavity, and vulva). Clinical signs included lethargy, lameness, difficulty with prehension, hyporexia to anorexia, and hypersalivation. Severely affected rhinoceros had clinical pathology findings consistent with systemic inflammation. Vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus was confirmed via PCR from swabs of lesions in 10/26 (38%) rhinoceros. Of these 10 confirmed cases, 9 (90%) were SWR and 1 (10%) was a GOHR. A further 6/26 (24%) were considered probable cases, and 10/26 (38%) were considered suspect cases based on clinical signs, but the inability to appropriately sample due to the housing environment precluded confirmation. Histopathology samples from 3 rhinoceros were consistent with VSV, and viral RNA was localized in histologic lesions via RNA in situ hybridization for 1 case. All rhinoceros survived infection despite severe systemic illness in 2 animals. This case series describes the clinical appearance and progression of VSV in 2 rhinoceros species. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of VSV in a rhinoceros.

Biometrical Analysis of the Indian One Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Unicornis) in Laal Suhanra National Park, Pakistan

The Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), commonly referred to as the Indian Rhinoceros, is an endangered species inhabiting the floodplains and grasslands of the Indian subcontinent. Once abundant, the species now faces a vulnerable status in its homeland, as confirmed by the International Union for The Conservation of Nature IUCN’s assessment. Objective: To record Rhinoceros unicornis' biometric body measurements for the first time. Methods: The following study delves into the significance of body biometry data for the conservation of this remarkable species Indian One Horned Rhinoceros housed at Lal Suhanra National Park, Punjab, Pakistan. In order to give conservationists, the resources they need to develop more effective methods involving habitat management, population monitoring, and captive breeding programs, a thorough analysis of the physical characteristics, growth trends, and sexual dimorphism of 42-year-old Indian Rhinos via the evaluation of the body measurements was conducted. Results: This study presents comprehensive body measurements of the Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros which have never been published before. The length of the rhino itself spanned 143 inches, encapsulating the magnitude of this magnificent creature. These insightful observations are crucial for protecting the threatened species, particularly considering the growing threats caused by habitat loss, poaching, and the effects of climate change. Conclusions: Biometric analysis of large mammals assumes a pivotal role when designing enclosures and estimating the enclosure dimensions.

Correlates and impacts of human-mammal conflict in the central part of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal

Crop damage, predation on domestic animals and human attacks are often associated with human-wildlife conflict. The abundance and encounter rate of wild mammals are often associated with human wildlife conflict. Crop damage, livestock depredation and human injury and their relation with environmental factors and encounter rate of the mammals was evaluated in the central region of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape. The abundance and the encounter rate of large mammals were determined by dividing the study area into four different study blocks (A, B, C and D) based on river course and topography. A total of 150 transects (average length = 3.18 ± 0.11 km), were administrated for data collection. Similarly, information on human-wildlife conflict was collected using 600 semi-structured questionnaires (150 from each block). The chital was the most abundant mammal (encounter rate (ER) = 1.49 and relative abundance (RA) = 55.45%) in block A whereas muntjac had the highest encounter rate in blocks B, C and D (ER = 0.34, 0.31, 0.79 respectively) but the relative abundance of rhesus was comparatively higher in blocks B, C and D. The signs of tiger were reported from block A only whereas signs of leopard were reported from all blocks. But signs of Himalayan black bear were reported from B, C and D. The encounter rate of the mammals correlated with the monetary loss caused by them. Greater one-horned rhino, wild pig and chital in lowland and monkeys, northern red muntjac, and Himalayan black bear in mid-hills (blocks B, C and D) were the principal crop raiders with a total average annual loss of US$ 11.45 per household. Similarly, the total annual monetary loss by livestock depredation was US$ 76.60 per household. This study evaluated the encounter rate of mammals and their effects on the conflict with people. However, the negative effects arrived from human-wildlife conflicts always threaten large mammals. Hence, this study suggests future intensive studies related to mitigation and prevention methods to mitigate the issues of human-wildlife conflicts.

23 An improved understanding of ovulation timing in two rhinoceros species (Rhinoceros unicornis, Ceratotherium simum simum): ultrasound examination of preovulatory follicles before and after ovulation induction

23 An improved understanding of ovulation timing in two rhinoceros species (Rhinoceros unicornis, Ceratotherium simum simum): ultrasound examination of preovulatory follicles before and after ovulation induction

Parturition and Neonatal Parameters of Three Species of Rhinoceros under Managed Care in the United States

Rhinoceros species range from near threatened to critically endangered due to habitat loss and poaching. A sustainable ex situ breeding population is critically important to maintain genetic diversity and help ensure the survival of the species; however, not all populations under human care are self-sustaining. While rhinoceros reproductive physiology and pathology have been well studied, there is still a paucity of information describing the normal parameters of parturition and neonatal landmarks. Using video recordings, medical records, and keeper logs, we reviewed and compared data regarding the parturition of three rhinoceros species (black rhinoceros (BR) (Diceros bicornis), n = 4; greater one-horned rhinoceros (GOHR) (Rhinoceros unicornis), n = 21; and southern white rhinoceros (SWR) (Ceratotherium simum simum), n = 22) managed under human care in the United States. Using equine parameters as a model for comparison, we compiled the following data: the signs of impending parturition, durations of the parturition phases, calving presentation, frequency of dystocia or stillbirth, and time from birth to neonatal landmarks. Data from 47 births, including 26 videos, were examined. The durations of parturition phases I, II, and III had median lengths of 153 min (n = 18), 28 min (n = 21), and 205 min (n = 15), respectively. Anterior presentation of the calf was observed in 59% births, whereas posterior presentation occurred in 41% births. Posterior calving presentation was associated with a longer phase II of parturition (p = 0.04), although more data are needed to determine whether the posterior presentation of the calf carries a higher risk for stillbirth. Most (83%) stillbirths occurred in GOHR, indicating that this species might be at a higher risk for stillbirth compared to SWR (17%) (p = 0.07). The median time from birth to the calf standing was longer in the GOHR (64 min) compared to the SWR (30 min) (p = 0.02). Detailed descriptions of the parturition parameters and neonatal landmarks in rhinoceros will aid facilities with rhinoceros breeding programs to recognize abnormalities in the parturient or post-partum periods and guide indications for veterinary intervention.

Empire, Nature and Agrarian World: A History of Rhino Preservation in the Kaziranga Game Reserve, India (1902–1938)

The greater one-horned rhinoceros or Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) faced extinction in British India at the end of the nineteenth century. In 1908, the Government of Assam established the Kaziranga Game Reserve (KGR, now Kaziranga National Park) to preserve the vanishing rhino. As the twentieth century progressed, creating wilderness – by demonising the presence of the peasants and graziers – became a global panacea for protecting wildlife. Contrary to that belief, this article will show how the rhino population revived amidst human existence dictated by agro-ecological interactions and bureaucratic expediencies. The rhino’s ethology and its place in the imagination of rural people minimised its enemies. Moreover, in fluvial geography that constantly transformed the KGR’s boundaries, peasants and graziers creatively negotiated their usufruct rights and supported rhino preservation. Locating the KGR in the historical analysis of fluvial agro-ecology, this study illuminates how a critical interaction between different actors, i.e. human and non-human and coloniser and colonised, accentuated the cultural and material contestations amidst which the rhino eventually survived.

Plastic ingestion by greater one-horned rhinos in Nepal: An emerging conservation threat

Plastic pollution is potentially a major threat to the health of terrestrial organisms, including megafauna, but its effects are relatively understudied compared to marine ecosystems. Here we document the presence of plastic macro-particles in the dung of the greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in the Terai landscape of Nepal. Field data were collected deep within Chitwan National Park and its fringe zone during the monsoon and post-monsoon season of 2020, 2021 and 2022. Over three years, we recorded plastic in ∼10% of 258 rhino dungs piles. This is an underestimate since we did not record micro-particles or search entire dungs. More dungs located deep within the national park (core zone) contained plastic compared to the fringe zone and we recorded no difference in plastic incidence between riverine forest and floodplain grasslands. Rhinos do not appear to target garbage dumps as food sources but are exposed to plastic when foraging. The plastic is carried down river during monsoonal floods and deposited in rhino habitat as the flood waters recede. The relatively higher rate of plastic detection in rhino dungs from the core zone is probably due to details of rhino ranging, and is a potential threat to other wildlife in the river floodplains. We recommend more detailed studies on the patterns and effects of plastic ingestion by rhinos and other wildlife. A comprehensive waste management system within the landscape is required to reduce such threats.

In vitro fertilization program in white rhinoceros.

To save endangered rhinoceros species, assisted reproductive technologies are warranted. We here report in vitro blastocyst generation of the Near-Threatened Southern white rhinoceros and, for the first time, also of the technically Extinct Northern white rhinoceros. The Anthropocene is marked by a dramatic biodiversity decline, particularly affecting the family Rhinocerotidae. Three of five extant species are listed as Critically Endangered (Sumatran, Javan, black rhinoceros), one as Vulnerable (Indian rhinoceros), and only one white rhino (WR) subspecies, the Southern white rhinoceros (SWR), after more than a century of successful protection is currently classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN, while numbers again are declining. Conversely, in 2008, the SWR's northern counterpart and second WR subspecies, the Northern white rhinoceros (NWR), was declared extinct in the wild. Safeguarding these vanishing keystone species urgently requires new reproductive strategies. We here assess one such strategy, the novel in vitro fertilization program in SWR and - for the first-time NWR - regarding health effects, donor-related, and procedural factors. Over the past 8 years, we performed 65 procedures in 22 white rhinoceros females (20 SWR and 2 NWR) comprising hormonal ovarian stimulation, ovum pick-up (OPU), in vitro oocyte maturation, fertilization, embryo culture, and blastocyst cryopreservation, at an efficiency of 1.0 ± 1.3 blastocysts per OPU, generating 22 NWR, 19 SWR and 10 SWR/NWR hybrid blastocysts for the future generation of live offspring.

Pleistocene Lang Trang fauna in North Vietnam: taxonomic composition and habitats

New data on the taxonomic composition and ecological characteristics of Late Pleistocene vertebrates and invertebrates from the Lang Trang cave in northern Vietnam are presented. Based on the materials collected in progress of the work of the Joint Vietnam - Russia Tropical Science and Technology Research Center in 2020-2022, various representatives of the Stegodon-Ailuropoda Fauna of the second half of the Middle - early Late Pleistocene of Southeast Asia were identified, including primates Gigantopithecus blacki, Pongo sp., Trachypithecus sp., Presbytis sp., Macaca nemestrina, M. cf. fascicularis, M. cf. mulatta, and Macaca sp., carnivorans Panthera tigris, Neofelis nebulosa, and Arctonyx collaris rostratus, a lipotyphlan Chodsigoa hoffmanni, a bat Ia io, rodents Hystrix kiangsenensis, Leopoldamys neilli, and Rattus rattus, proboscideans Stegodon sp. and Elephas maximus, perissodactyls Tapirus indicus, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Rhinoceros sondaicus, and Rh. unicornis, artiodactyls Sus scrofa, S. barbatus, Tragulus kanchil, Hydropotes inermis, Muntiacus muntjak, Axis porcinus, Rusa unicolor, Capricornis sumatraensis, Bubalus arnee, and Bos sp., a crocodile Crocodylus sp., a turtle Cuora sp. and an abundant gastropod association, presented by six terrestrial forms, two freshwater species and a coastal-marine species Ellobium aurismidae. Gigantopithecus blacki, Macaca cf. fascicularis, M. cf. mulatta, Neofelis nebulosa, Chodsigoa hoffmanni, Ia io, Leopoldamys neilli, Rattus rattus, Rhinoceros unicornis, Sus barbatus, Tragulus kanchil, Hydropotes inermis, Axis porcinus, crocodiles, turtles, and most of gastropod species were identified for the first time in the Lang Trang Fauna based on these studies. Of particular interest is the finding of the giant ape G. blacki, one of the latest in the fossil record. The habitats of the fauna are characterized as mosaic biotopes with a predominance of wet stations and the participation of mangrove swamps and coastal lowlands; these conditions could have existed in the area of the cave during a major marine transgression of the early Late Pleistocene.

Umjetno mlijeko za novorođenu siročad divljih životinja

Milk is a very complex nutrient and differs significantly between species. Monotreme and Marsupial milk contains only trace amounts of lactose, whereas in Eutherian species, lactose is the predominant saccharide. Within the Eutheria, the composition varies from 8.5% in Indian rhinoceros to 63.8% in Grey seal in concentration; from 0.3% in Indian rhinoceros to 9.3% in elephants in total fat; from 1.2% in Indian rhinoceros to 12.8% in Fin whale in total protein; and finally from 0.8% in Great panda to 6.5% in Indian rhinoceros in lactose. Milk components change during lactation and, especially in Marsupials, this should be considered in artificial feeding. Other factors to be taken into account are the amino acid panel, whey and casein fractions, iron and immunological components. In wildlife nursing, we often come across orphaned neonates that require artificial feeding. However, there are no specific formulas for each wildlife baby. The aim of this review is to compare which artificial milk replacer is best suited for selected species of wildlife neonates.

Historical development of the survivorship of zoo rhinoceroses-A comparative historical analysis.

Zoo animal husbandry is a skill that should be developing constantly. In theory, this should lead to an improvement of zoo animal survivorship over time. Additionally, it has been suggested that species that are at a comparatively higher risk of extinction in their natural habitats (in situ) might also be more difficult to keep under zoo conditions (ex situ). Here, we assessed these questions for three zoo-managed rhinoceros species with different extinction risk status allocated by the IUCN: the "critically endangered" black rhino (Diceros bicornis), the "vulnerable" greater one-horned (GOH) rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), and the "near threatened" white rhino (Ceratotherium simum). Comparing zoo animals ≥1 year of age, the black rhino had the lowest and the white rhino the highest survivorship, in congruence with their extinction risk status. Historically, the survivorship of both black and white rhino in zoos improved significantly over time, whereas that of GOH rhino stagnated. Juvenile mortality was generally low and decreased even further in black and white rhinos over time. Together with the development of population pyramids, this shows increasing competence of the global zoo community to sustain all three species. Compared to the continuously expanding zoo population of GOH and white rhinos, the zoo-managed black rhino population has stagnated in numbers in recent years. Zoos do not only contribute to conservation by propagating ex situ populations, but also by increasing species-specific husbandry skills. We recommend detailed research to understand specific factors responsible for the stagnation but also the general improvement of survivorship of zoo-managed rhinos.

Corneal Perforation Associated with Providencia rettgeri in an African Helmeted Turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa)

A four-year-old, male, captive-born African helmeted turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa) was presented for an ocular disorder of three days duration. Physical examination showed edema of all limbs and blepharedema of the left eye. Ophthalmic examination revealed severe blepharoconjunctivitis, a large melting corneal ulcer and stromal densification that prevented evaluation of the anterior chamber. Examination of the right eye was unremarkable. Ultrasonography of the left eye revealed corneal perforation associated with severe anterior uveitis. Enucleation was performed based on the poor prognosis for the eye and the risk of septicemia. Providencia rettgeri was identified from bacterial culture. Fungal culture was negative. Histopathology of the eyeball revealed a corneal perforation associated with edema and heterophilic infiltration of the corneal stroma. Three weeks after surgery, the enucleation wound had healed. P. rettgeri has been reported as a rare cause of keratitis in humans. A systematic literature review showed one case of a melting corneal ulcer in an Asian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) associated with this infectious agent. This is the first report of corneal perforation associated with P. rettgeri in a reptile.

Evolutionarily Young African Rhinoceros Gammaretroviruses.

High-throughput sequences were generated from DNA and cDNA from four Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) located in the Taronga Western Plain Zoo in Australia. Virome analysis identified reads that were similar to Mus caroli endogenous gammaretrovirus (McERV). Previous analysis of perissodactyl genomes did not recover gammaretroviruses. Our analysis, including the screening of the updated white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) draft genomes identified high-copy orthologous gammaretroviral ERVs. Screening of Asian rhinoceros, extinct rhinoceros, domestic horse, and tapir genomes did not identify related gammaretroviral sequences in these species. The newly identified proviral sequences were designated SimumERV and DicerosERV for the white and black rhinoceros retroviruses, respectively. Two long terminal repeat (LTR) variants (LTR-A and LTR-B) were identified in the black rhinoceros, with different copy numbers associated with each (n = 101 and 373, respectively). Only the LTR-A lineage (n = 467) was found in the white rhinoceros. The African and Asian rhinoceros lineages diverged approximately 16 million years ago. Divergence age estimation of the identified proviruses suggests that the exogenous retroviral ancestor of the African rhinoceros ERVs colonized their genomes within the last 8 million years, a result consistent with the absence of these gammaretroviruses from Asian rhinoceros and other perissodactyls. The black rhinoceros germ line was colonized by two lineages of closely related retroviruses and white rhinoceros by one. Phylogenetic analysis indicates a close evolutionary relationship with ERVs of rodents including sympatric African rats, suggesting a possible African origin of the identified rhinoceros gammaretroviruses. IMPORTANCE Rhinoceros genomes were thought to be devoid of gammaretroviruses, as has been determined for other perissodactyls (horses, tapirs, and rhinoceros). While this may be true of most rhinoceros, the African white and black rhinoceros genomes have been colonized by evolutionarily young gammaretroviruses (SimumERV and DicerosERV for the white and black rhinoceros, respectively). These high-copy endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) may have expanded in multiple waves. The closest relative of SimumERV and DicerosERV is found in rodents, including African endemic species. Restriction of the ERVs to African rhinoceros suggests an African origin for the rhinoceros gammaretroviruses.