Mainland India Research Articles

Governance in the Sixth Schedule Areas in India’s North-East: Context, Content and Challenges

Nestled in the foothills of the Himalayas in the eastern range North-East (N-E) has the ‘seven sisters’—Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, along with a small and beautiful cousin in the Himalayan fringes, namely, Sikkim. Nearly ninety-eight per cent of N-E is surrounded by international boundaries and two per cent with the rest of India. Often known as ‘the ethnic cauldron’, this region is the home of extraordinarily diverse mosaic of ethnic groups having distinctive social, cultural and economic identity, more akin to their South Asia neighbours than mainland India. It is a habitat of a good number of ethnic rebel groups whose agendas vary from complete session from India to fighting for ethnic identities and home lands. The primary objective of the colonial rule in N-E was to ensure its administrative insulation which might have largely contributed to the continuation of the backwardness of the N-E region. It is probably the only political region in the country where every large state is a region unto itself within a sub-continental nation. This uniqueness is found reflected in the legislations and institutions like the North Eastern Council Act, 1971, setting a nodal agency for the economic development of the region with a secretariat of its own and a separate Union Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region created in 2001. In this article, an attempt has been made to analyse the background, context, content and significance of the Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India which was incorporated to provide self-rule to the tribal population in the N-E India.

Vertical profiles of submicron aerosol single scattering albedo over the Indian region immediately before monsoon onset and during its development: research from the SWAAMI field campaign

Abstract. Vertical structures of aerosol single scattering albedo (SSA), from near the surface through the free troposphere, have been estimated for the first time at distinct geographical locations over the Indian mainland and adjoining oceans, using in situ measurements of aerosol scattering and absorption coefficients aboard the Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements (FAAM) BAe-146 aircraft during the South West Asian Aerosol Monsoon Interactions (SWAAMI) campaign from June to July 2016. These are used to examine the spatial variation of SSA profiles and also to characterize its transformation from just prior to the onset of Indian Summer Monsoon (June 2016) to its active phase (July 2016). Very strong aerosol absorption, with SSA values as low as 0.7, persisted in the lower altitudes (<3 km) over the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), prior to the monsoon onset, with a west-to-east gradient; lower values occurred in the north-western arid regions, peaking in the central IGP and somewhat decreasing towards the eastern end. During the active phase of the monsoon, the SSA is found to increase remarkably, indicating far less absorption. Nevertheless, significant aerosol absorption persisted in the lower and middle troposphere over the IGP. Inputting these SSA and extinction profiles into a radiative transfer model, we examined the effects of using height-resolved information in estimating atmospheric heating rates due to aerosols, over similar estimates made using a single columnar value. It was noted that use of a single SSA value leads to an underestimation (overestimation) of the heating rates over regions with low (high) SSA, emphasizing the importance of height-resolved information. Further, the use of realistic profiles showed significant heating of the atmosphere by submicron aerosol absorption at the middle troposphere, which may have strong implications for clouds and climate.

Increase in probable maximum precipitation in a changing climate over India

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is considered as an important design criteria and it is expected to change over time owing to the impacts of climate change and intensification of global hydrological cycle. Thus, reconstruction of PMP map and investigation about its temporal change are very essential in the context of climate change. This study develops 1-day PMP map of India for five consecutive time periods (two in historical, i.e., 1901-70, 1971-2010; and three in future, i.e., 2010-39, 2040-69 and 2070-2100) to study its temporal change. Observed gridded daily precipitation data from India Meteorological Department (IMD) and outputs from three climate models following two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are used to develop historical and future PMP maps, respectively. The modified Hershfield method is used for estimation of PMP with an updated method for enveloping technique. The results show a clear increasing trend in PMP for most part of India. Specifically, 84% area of Indian mainland exhibits an increasing trend in PMP with an average of around 35% increase in post-1970 (1971–2010) period as compared to pre-1970 (1901–1970) period. Similarly, in the far-future period (2071–2100), around 70–80% area is showing an increase with an approximate average increase of 20%-35% in PMP across different models with respect to recent past (1971–2010) following RCP 8.5 scenario. These observations evidently indicate how significantly PMP is increasing due to climate change and it should be considered in the revised planning and design in water resources engineering.

Epidemiology of malaria and chloroquine resistance in Mizoram, northeastern India, a malaria-endemic region bordering Myanmar

BackgroundMizoram, a northeastern state in India, shares international borders with Myanmar and Bangladesh and is considered to be one of the key routes through which drug-resistant parasites of Southeast Asia enter mainland India. Despite its strategic location and importance, malaria epidemiology and molecular status of chloroquine resistance had not been well documented, and since chloroquine (CQ), as the first-line treatment in Plasmodium falciparum infection was discontinued since 2008, it was expected that CQ-sensitive haplotype would be more abundant.MethodsMalaria epidemiology data for the period 2010 to 2018 was collected from the office of State Vector Disease Control Programme. Plasmodium falciparum-positive blood samples were collected from government district hospitals, community health centres, primary health centres, sub-centres, and diagnostic centres from six malaria-prone districts. The samples were processed and analysed using genes–P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant transporter (pfcrt) and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) via sequencing of PCR amplicon from 2015 to 2017.ResultsMalaria occurred throughout the year and P. falciparum accounted for > 89% of total malaria cases. During 2010–2018, the highest number of malaria incidence was recorded in Lawngtlai (36% of total malaria cases; average API2010–2018 of 34.8) while Champhai remained consistently low (0.4%; average API2010–2018 of 0.04). Males of ≥ 15 years old contributed maximum (35.7%) among gender and age malarial distribution recorded during 2014–2018. Death due to malaria gradually decreased over the years. A higher abundance of mutated pfcrt (58.5% of the total sample analysed) and a lower prevalence of mutated pfmdr1 (48.7%) were observed. All mutations identified for pfcrt belong to the Southeast Asian CVIET haplotype. Only a single point mutation was observed at 86 (N → Y) position in pfmdr1 (48.7%). The key N86Y mutation in pfmdr1 that had been shown to modulate CQR was found in 67.1% of the samples positive for the CVIET haplotype.ConclusionsThis is the first report that details malaria epidemiology and also the molecular status of CQ-resistance in P. falciparum population of the region. The efforts of the State Vector Borne Disease Control Programme have proved to be quite effective in controlling the malaria burden in the state. Despite the discontinuation of CQ for a decade, local P. falciparum is observed with decreased CQ-sensitive haplotype. It is believed that the present findings will form a basis for further studies on genetic diversity in P. falciparum, which could confer better understanding of the complexity of the disease in Southeast Asia.

New record of an oyster species from Chilika Lagoon, Odisha, north-western Bay of Bengal

This paper reports first record of a marine bivalve Isognomon ephippium Linnaeus from the Chilika lagoon as well as mainland of India since this species is highly restricted to Andaman waters only. Actual cause of occurrence is still unknown however, it is believed that passive migration of larva/juvenile through high energetic cyclonic water current might have helped to settle in Chilika lagoon or else it is carried out by the ballast water. The observed species contains many of the miniature pearls within it that provides new prospective to pearl industry. Nevertheless, occurrence of this reef based and mangrove linked species in the Chilika indicates highly adoptive nature of the lagoon ecosystem for the congregation of diverse marine benthic fauna.

Identity and Otherisation in Northeast India: Representations in Media Texts

Asymmetrical power relations between ‘us’, or the in-group, and the ‘others’, or the out-group, are key to the construction and understanding of otherisation. Otherness in Meghalaya, Northeast India is made complex by historical, geopolitical, social, linguistic and cultural factors that are instrumental in creating boundaries between the tribal and non-tribal populace. The present article examines discourses of non-tribal people being ‘othered’ by their tribal counterparts, the majoritarian Khasis in Meghalaya. Employing Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the article examines representations of the ‘othering’ of non-tribal ‘others’ in media texts drawn from English-medium newspapers, magazines and a blog. Evidently, issues of control, and dominance, are pivotal to the power struggles between the ethnic groups in the state, which are inherent in the process of othering. The othering of northeasterners in mainland India is evident in discourse that prods reverse otherisation of non-tribal Indians in the Northeast, including Meghalaya. Clearly, an analysis of such texts also reveals the role of identity politics and ethnonational groups as pivotal to othering. Finally, identity threat, race-based differentiation and loss of citizenship allude to outcomes of otherisation.

Rhynchotechum parviflorum Blume (Gesneriaceae): a new record to mainland India

Rhynchotechum parviflorum Blume earlier known to occur in Nicobar Islands of India is now recorded for the first time from Upper Siang of Arunachal Pradesh, Mainland India. A short description along with colour images are provided for easy identification.

Recent unprecedented weakening of Indian summer monsoon in warming environment

All India summer monsoon rainfall (AISMR) shows a declining trend since 1953. Hence, the period 1953–2015 is considered for this study. The deviations of the summer monsoon (SM) rainfall in the recent period (1983–2015) from that of the previous period (1953–1982) have been evaluated for individual months and whole SM season using India Meteorological Department (IMD) gridded rainfall. The changes in the SM rainfall in the recent 3 decades with respect to the changes in the thermal, moisture, and circulation patterns over India and neighborhood are studied. The relationships between the winds over the Somali jet core region and the SM rainfall over India are quantified. Enhancement of rainfall activity is seen over a few subdivisions mainly Jammu & Kashmir and parts of Northwest India where the western disturbance interaction and the meridional wind component of low level jet (LLJ) have been pronounced. The decline in rainfall over major part of India in the recent 33 years is associated with weakened low level circulation, decrease in the relative humidity (RH) over the Bay of Bengal, less frequency of cyclonic disturbances formed in the Bay of Bengal, decrease in the genesis potential parameter as well as north-south sea level pressure gradient between Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The inconsistency of warming rates between Northern India and Southern India and its adjoining areas in the layer, 600–200 hPa induces reduced SM circulation. Further, the Walker and Hadley circulations specify a decline in the convective activity in SM season over the Indian mainland.

Suitable varieties and economic analysis of sweet pepper for tropical Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands is one of most tourist destination in India and to meet the food requirements of travellers, ‘tourist food’ crops need to be grown locally to sustain local agriculture. Sweet pepper is one of such vegetable crop which had negligible production in islands and entire demand was being met through transports from mainland India. Heavy downpour during rainy season (May - December) and lack of information on suitable varieties limits its promotion. Present study investigated ten varieties/F1 hybrids of sweet pepper in polyhouse. The most promising variety was found to be ‘Indra’ (63.6t/ha) followed by ‘California Wonder’ (48.3t/ha), however, unmarketable yield was also high in both of them (16.0t/ha and 9.9t/ha, respectively). Incidence of bacterial wilt in natural field was ranged from 26.0 % (Arka Gaurav) to 39.3 % (Bomby). Blossom end rot was observed to be highest in ‘Kaveri’ (13.8%), sunscald and misshapen fruits in ‘Orobelle’ 23.1% and 12.8%, respectively. Strong negative correlation (r = -0.713) was observed between sunscald and plant spread. Varieties showed differences for economic viability of polyhouse cultivation of sweet pepper and the highest net return (Rs./ha) was recorded from ‘Indra’ at farm gate price (Rs. 1777785/-) and consumer price (Rs. 2969141/-). The information will be useful for promotion of an exotic high value vegetable like sweet pepper in island condition and economizing the polyhouse cultivation technology.

Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation in the context of climate change

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is the maximum depth of precipitation at a location for a given duration that is meteorologically possible. It is a crucial information for any water infrastructure, such as dams, culverts, drainage network in order to ensure a desirable probability of exceedance. This paper proposes a technique for estimation of PMP, suitable in the context of climate change. Out of several available methods, Hershfield method is considered as a convenient and effective statistical method of PMP estimation, provided sufficiently long precipitation records are available. The most crucial step in Hershfield method is the precise estimation of frequency factor (K) and its enveloping technique. There is no universally accepted enveloping technique of K. Different values of K and different types of enveloping techniques have been suggested and used by various investigators across the world. We introduce an upgradation in the existing enveloping technique in order to bring clarity and universality in the estimation, particularly in the context of climate change. This updated enveloping technique and the conventional Hershfield method-both are applied to develop PMP maps for the entire Indian mainland over the past century (1901-2000). Comparison between the proposed and existing methods of PMP estimation reveals a better estimation of spatio-temporal variation of PMP, avoiding unusual overestimation of PMP in the low rainfall extreme regions of India by existing Hershfield method.In brief, the contributions of this paper are as follows:•An upgradation of the existing Hershfield Method [1] by introducing a new enveloping technique for the frequency factor (K).•The single envelope curve in the existing Hershfield method is modified as a composite curve, consisting of a straight-line portion and an exponentially decaying portion.•Development of PMP maps over India using both Hershfield method and the proposed technique

Malaria in North-East India: Importance and Implications in the Era of Elimination

Worldwide and in India, malaria elimination efforts are being ramped up to eradicate the disease by 2030. Malaria elimination efforts in North-East (NE) India will have a great bearing on the overall efforts to eradicate malaria in the rest of India. The first cases of chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance were reported in NE India, and the source of these drug resistant parasites are most likely from South East Asia (SEA). NE India is the only land route through which the parasites from SEA can enter the Indian mainland. India’s malaria drug policy had to be constantly updated due to the emergence of drug resistant parasites in NE India. Malaria is highly endemic in many parts of NE India, and Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for the majority of the cases. Highly efficient primary vectors and emerging secondary vectors complicate malaria elimination efforts in NE India. Many of the high transmission zones in NE India are tribal belts, and are difficult to access. The review details the malaria epidemiology in seven NE Indian states from 2008 to 2018. In addition, the origin and evolution of resistance to major anti-malarials are discussed. Furthermore, the bionomics of primary vectors and emergence of secondary malaria vectors, and possible strategies to prevent and control malaria in NE are outlined.

Origin and identity of the Brokpa of Dah-Hanu, Himalayas – an NRY-HG L1a2 (M357) legacy

Background: The Brokpas are an isolated tribal population of the Dah-Hanu villages of the Leh district of India. They speak Dardic, a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family, and are putatively identified as “pure Aryan,” a hegemonic impression perpetuated by foreign tourism.Aim: To determine if the above is true by looking for an appreciable frequency of NRY-HG-R1a1(M17) signatures which are common to Indo-European language speakers of mainland India and elsewhere.Subjects and methods: We studied 75 random Brokpa males from the Dah-Hanu region, on the northern bank of the Indus river.Results: Interestingly, the Brokpa males possessed a high proportion of NRY-HG-L1a2(M357) (62.7%) that are found sporadically in India and her neighbourhood. A global analysis of this clade (present study, 214 of 3327 men from 63 populations; from the literature 56 of 873) suggested that they originated from southern India.Conclusion: The Y chromosomal studies suggest the Brokpa to be pre-Vedic settlers of the Himalayas, 9000 ybp, with an isolated evolution. The mtDNA profile shows a predominance of mtDNA HG A4 that must have arrived from outside the Indian subcontinent.

A new distribution record of the Pentagonal Sea Urchin Crab Echinoecus pentagonus (A. Milne-Edwards, 1879) (Decapoda: Brachyura: Pilumnidae) from the Andaman Islands, India

First time, a Sea Urchin Crab, Echinoecus pentagonus (A. Milne-Edwards, 1879) is recorded from the rocky intertidal region of the Andaman Islands. It is a symbiotic crab live with Sea Urchin. This species is recorded from the Lakshadweep and Nicobar Islands but still there is no record from mainland India. A detail description of the species with standard photographs and line diagrams is provided.

Quantifying global CH4 and N2O footprints

This study aims to quantify global CH4 and N2O footprints in 2012 in terms of 181 economies and 20 world regions based on the official national emission accounts from the UNFCCC database and the global multi-region input-output accounts from the EORA database. Global total CH4 and N2O emissions increased by 15.0% in 2012 compared to 1990, mainly driven by increasing demands of agricultural and energy products. Mainland China, Western Europe, the USA, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa were identified as the largest five CH4 footprint contributors (55.6% of the global total), while Mainland China, the USA, Western Europe, Brazil and Sub-Saharan Africa as the largest N2O footprint contributors (59.2% of the global total). In most developed economies, the CH4 and N2O footprints were much higher than their emissions on the production side, but opposite picture is observed in emerging economies. 36.4% and 24.8% of the global CH4 and N2O emissions in 2012 were associated with international trade, respectively. Substantial energy-related CH4 and agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions were transferred from developed countries to developing countries. Several nations within Kyoto targets have reduced their CH4 and N2O emissions significantly between 1990 and 2012, but the generally-believed success is challenged when viewing from the consumption side. Mainland China, Southeast Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Brazil, Middle East and India witnessed prominent increase of CH4 and N2O footprints in the same period. The structure and spatial patterns of global CH4 and N2O footprints shed light on the role of consumption-side actions and international cooperation for future non-CO2 GHG emission reduction.

The Problem Without a Name: Comments on Cultural Difference (Racism) in India

This paper is about race and race relations in India with a focus on the experiences of violence and discrimination that people from India’s Northeast face in mainland India. This has become a ‘problem without a name’, generally articulated as a problem of cultural difference. The paper argues that the emphasis on cultural difference elides the issue of racism faced by India’s north-eastern subjects, whereby culture is a mere substitute for race. Institutional approaches to racism tend to rely on a biological understanding of race. The paper demonstrates the racial formation of the category ‘north-eastern’ through the processes of colonialism, nationalism and counter-insurgency. This approach shows the ways in which racism, classism and sexism work together in constituting the racialised, gendered and classed north-eastern subject.

Distinct begomovirus complexes infecting adjacently growing plants in Northeast India-A report

Begomovirus associated tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD) is one of the major limiting factors in production of tomato worldwide, including India. In contrast to extensive diversity of ToLCD associated begomovirus species in the mainland India, information on begomovirus species circulating in the Northeastern part of India (NE India) is extremely scanty. This study, for the first time, demonstrate a novel begomovirus disease complex comprising of tobacco curly shoot virus (TbCSV) along with non-cognate betasatellite (tomato leaf curl virus associated betasatellite, ToLCB) to cause severe ToLCD in this region of NE India. Phylogenetically, the TbCSV sequences showed close relatedness to TbCSV sequences from Bangladesh and West Bengal, India, as compared to sequences from China. Furthermore, this begomovirus disease complex was found to be markedly distinct from another disease complex (comprising of tomato leaf curl Bangladesh virus, ToLCBV and a cognate betasatellite) infecting Gomphostemma plants growing in adjacent plots. Thus, besides providing important information on distinctive molecular epidemiology of ToLCD associated Begomovirus in NE India, this study also reveal and discuss some interesting facets of begomovirus ecology.

Cross-sectional seroprevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in goats in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

This cross-sectional study describes the seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in goats in Andaman and Nicobar (AN) Islands, India during 2017–2018. A total of 392 goat serum samples were collected from 36 epidemiological units (epi-units) using a stratified random sampling procedure and were screened for PPR virus (PPRV) antibody using an indigenously developed PPR monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) assay. The results showed that the overall 1.28% (0.01-0.03 at 95% confidence interval) and 1.39% apparent and true prevalence of PPRV antibodies in goats in the studied region. Further, a few samples from five epi-units have only shown marginal positive (percentage inhibition (PI) value ranged from 40.4 to 48.0) for PPRV antibodies with less than 30% seroprevalence in all the tested epi-units in the study region. The finding infers that the goat population in the region are generally free from PPRV antibodies, as there were neither PPR outbreaks reported nor PPR vaccination strategies practiced in goats in AN Islands. Further, the PPR immune protection in goats is almost nil, when compared with the mainland of India, where the disease is enzootic with varying percentage of seroprevalence and population immunity is being reported. This is first of its kind on the prevalence study of the PPRV antibodies in goats in a unique niche of AN archipelago of India.

Seasonal contrast in the vertical profiles of aerosol number concentrations and size distributions over India: Implications from RAWEX aircraft campaign

Aircraft measurements of the vertical profiles of aerosol total number concentrations and size distributions (in the size range of 0.5–20 μm) were made over seven geographically diverse locations of the Indian mainland during two contrasting seasons, winter (December 2012) and spring (April–May 2013), as a part of the regional aerosol warming experiment (RAWEX). Our observations revealed an increase in the vertical extent of aerosol loading during spring having a significant enhancement in coarse mode aerosols in the lower free-troposphere (FT) over western and central parts of India and the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). The particulate depolarisation ratio (PDR) derived from the Cloud Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) over the same region showed the presence of dust (including polluted dust) at higher altitudes in spring. Concurrent and collocated measurements of aerosol scattering and absorption properties aboard the aircraft revealed that the FT enhancement in coarse mode aerosol loading during spring is associated with a decrease in single scattering albedo and an increase in columnar absorption aerosol optical depth. This confirms that the elevated layers of coarse mode aerosols seen during spring are absorbing in nature, especially over the IGP. The presence of such coarse-mode absorbing aerosols plays a crucial role in governing the radiation balance over the IGP in spring through the diabatic heating of the upper atmosphere.

<i>Eugenia</i> (Myrtaceae) - A new generic record for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

Eugenia mooniana Wight is reported here for the first time from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, earlier known only from mainland India and Sri Lanka. It also constitutes a new generic record for Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Morphological description of the species along with information on its habitat, ecology, flowering period and distribution is given here.

Notes on the hairstreak butterflies Euaspa Moore, 1884 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) with new distribution records to the Indian eastern Himalaya

The genus Euaspa Moore, 1884 (Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Theclini) of Zephyrus Hairstreak butterflies is represented by 14 species worldwide. Among these, four species were recorded from the Indian mainland. In this paper, E. motokii Koiwaya, 2002, previously known only from the Kachin State of Myanmar, is reported for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh in India. Also, E. mikamii Koiwaya, 2002 is recorded for the second time from India since the collection of the holotype in 1991 from the eastern Himalaya.