India-Eurasia Collision Zone Research Articles

Geodetic constraints on three-component motion of the Ordos block (China) and their implications for lithospheric dynamics

Abstract The Ordos block is a rigid portion of the North China Craton lying within the India-Eurasia collision zone that experiences little internal deformation, but is surrounded by active faulting, extensional grabens, and seismicity. In the surrounding region, geodetic studies have imaged complex crustal deformation, while seismic studies have suggested that the lithosphere is encountering regional modification by mantle convection. The Ordos block thus presents a valuable opportunity to compare seismic and geodetic constraints and investigate geodynamic processes affecting the region’s lithosphere. We here robustly image vertical land motion and horizontal strain rates using observations from the geographically extensive Global Navigation Satellite System and leveling networks in and around the Ordos block. Our results indicate that the Ordos block uplifts with some lateral variability at 0.5–2.0 mm/yr. In the northeastern Ordos block and Datong volcanic area, the crustal uplift rates are 2.0–4.0 mm/yr on average, much faster than those elsewhere on the block. We correct for non-tectonic vertical motion from surface hydrological loading and glacial isostatic adjustment, finding that these do not explain the vertical rate anomalies. Horizontal crustal extension and uplift are accompanied by a pattern of crustal contraction at the Datong volcanic field. Additionally, we find uplift west of and subsidence east of the Qinling Orogenic Belt, which are inconsistent with eastward crustal extrusion along it, suggesting instead a negligible migration of crustal materials especially to the east of 106°E. Comparing the geodetic measurements to evidence from seismic velocity anomalies and numerical simulation, we argue that the motions are consistent with lithospheric re-equilibration resulting from the heterogeneous thinning of the lithosphere by convective mantle upwelling and radial flow as well as shortening from the India-Eurasia collision.

Omphacite breakdown, symplectite formation and carbonate metasomatism in a retrograded continental eclogite: Implications for the exhumation of the Tso Morari Crystalline Complex (Trans-Himalaya, NW India)

The India-Eurasia collision zone in eastern Ladakh, India, is marked by the Tso Morari Crystalline Complex (TMCC), which underwent continental subduction, eclogite grade metamorphism, and rapid exhumation during the Himalayan orogeny. The TMCC is characterized by eclogitic enclaves, metamorphic evolution of which has been extensively studied in the past. Detailed petrography, mineral chemistry, Raman spectroscopy, and P-T-X pseudosection modelling of two such eclogite samples from the core and western margin of TMCC were carried out to address the differences and discrepancies from previous studies. Our study suggests peak metamorphism at ∼2.75 ± 0.1 GPa and ∼550 ± 50 °C, followed by a decompression stage at ∼1.50 ± 0.1 GPa and ∼580 ± 50 °C and subsequent high-temperature overprint at ∼0.85 ± 0.1 GPa and ∼680 ± 50 °C. Fine-grained grain boundary omphacite + garnet + amphibole symplectite colonies indicate exhumation along with fluid infiltration. The transition of omphacite into a more calcic variety and its subsequent replacement with amphibole are also observed. Presence of diopside + plagioclase symplectite indicates post-peak decompression and fluid infiltration. Carbonates in the matrix as veins and within fractures indicate late-stage fluid infiltration and metasomatism. Our study shows that lawsonite and/or Na-amphibole have not played any significant role in the metamorphic evolution of TMCC. In contrast to most of the previous studies carried out in TMCC, we opine that omphacite breakdown and metasomatism through externally derived carbonaceous fluids played a vital role in the exhumation and retrogression. We further opine that our mineral chemistry data and metamorphic modelling resemble a continental eclogite and mark differences from oceanic eclogites.

Middle Miocene final demise of remnants of an eastern Neotethyan seaway, Naga Hills, Indo-Myanmar Range

Miocene planktonic foraminifers occur in shale intercalated with thinly bedded siltstone and sandstone of the Surma Group in the foothills of the Naga Schuppen Belt of the Indo-Myanmar Range. Fourteen species from eleven genera are the first clearly imaged middle Miocene foraminifers recorded from the Surma Group in the Naga Hills. This new M5-M6 assemblage from the upper unit of the Bhuban Formation correlates to the uppermost Burdigalian to Langhian (16–14 Ma). Biostratigraphy, paleoenvironment and paleogeography of the assemblage are all significant. They provide a basis for widespread regional and global correlation constraining the timing of elimination of the final remnants of the Neotethyan seaway between India and eastern Eurasia. Results indicate that, unlike the western and Tibetan Himalayas where similar seaways disappeared before the Miocene, a shallow marine embayment that connected to the Indian Ocean endured in eastern parts of the India-Eurasia collision zone until the Middle Miocene.

The atypical Gaoligong orocline: Its geodynamic origin and evolution

Various orocline systems around the India–Eurasia collision zone have long been recognized and studied. Different portions of the India–Eurasia boundaries represent various scales and models of orocline-forming processes, such as the Baluchistan orocline formed by multiple deformation events and the Himalayan orocline formed by a mixture of complex structural mechanisms. The curvature from the eastern Himalayan syntaxis through east Burma to west Yunnan showed a unique convex curvature toward the mantle wedge. This is different from the concave Baluchistan orocline and the Himalayan orocline. The unique geometry of the Gaoligong orocline shows an N-S trend for the northern section and a NE-SW trend for the southern section. This curvature also marks the boundary between the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks along the Santaishan suture in western Yunnan, China. Our structural reconstruction identified five deformation events: 1) D1 is km-scale upright folding, which only affected the Neoproterozoic meta-sedimentary unit, 2) D2 recumbent folding, which only developed in the southern section of the Gaoligong orocline, 3) D3 large-scale gently westward-inclined thrust folding, 4) D4 right-lateral shear belt, and 5) the D5 normal faults. Since the D3 structure is the earliest event that shows penetrative foliation development along the orocline, we consider D1 and D2 as pre-orocline-forming events. The geometry of the Gaoligong orocline is controlled by the distribution of the Ordovician basement between the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks. Both north and south sections experienced the same structural evolution since D3 (a fault-propagation fold system occurred between 40 Ma and 28 Ma), D4 (steep right-lateral shear belt occurred between 28 Ma and 15 Ma), and D5 (normal faults after 15 Ma). The curvature first developed as a shovel-like top-to-the-NE thrust plane (S3) that formed under amphibolite-facies conditions between 40 Ma and 28 Ma. The following deformation events (D4 and D5) show orocline parallel foliation development under lower metamorphic conditions, indicating that the curvature of the Gaoligong orocline is not generated by additional rotation along multiple deformation events. However, due to the lack of orocline parallel foliation development for S3, and the lack of a proper position of the indenter, the Gaoligong orocline cannot be classified as a primary orocline nor a rotational orocline. The curved geometry is an interference pattern of topography relief to the shovel-like thrust plane that developed during D3. Our new reconstructed structural evolution concludes that the Gaoligong orocline is an “atypical” orocline.

Stress distribution in the western India-Eurasia collision zone, its kinematics and seismotectonic implications

In this study, we use iterative joint stress inversion technique on a declustered catalogue of 324 focal mechanisms to evaluate the stress distribution in the western India-Eurasia collision zone (IECZ). The stress field has been obtained for different tectonic settings, such as the Himalayan Seismic belt, Karakoram-Tibet region and the individual zones identified based on geology, tectonics and available focal mechanism solutions. The results reveal NE-SW trending principal stress (σ1) with compression for Himalayan seismic belt and strike-slip stress regime for Karakoram-Tibet. We observe that even within the Himalayan region, the western region (75°-77° E latitudes) exhibits arc-oblique compression (NE-SW) in contrast to the arc-normal compression (NNE-SSW) in central Himalaya beyond 77°E; consistent with GPS vectors. The Stress field for the aftershock sequence of 2005 Kashmir earthquake in the Hazara Syntaxis region displays dissimilarity with its adjoining regions (Pamir, Nanga Parbat, Hindukush, etc.), but exhibits similarity with the Central Himalaya. Within the Karakoram-Tibet region, the Karakoram fault exhibits NNE-SSW oriented principal stress with transpressional fault motion, while the Kaurik Chango rift shows N-S oriented principal stress with transtensional motion. The stress ratio in the western IECZ broadly varies between 0.07 and 0.9, suggesting the prominent role of the intermediate stress axis (σ2) in the areas of low-stress ratios. The inferences drawn suggest that the stress distribution in the western IECZ is heterogeneous with variable seismic hazard.

Seismic structure across central Myanmar from joint inversion of receiver functions and Rayleigh wave dispersion

The active tectonics in Myanmar is governed by the ongoing northward indentation and obliquely-eastward subduction of India into Eurasia. So far, detailed seismic structure of the crust and uppermost mantle at the eastern flank of the India-Eurasia collision zone remains highly debated. With seismic waveforms recorded at 79 broadband stations in Myanmar, we build a regional shear velocity model in the depth range of 0–80 km by joint inversion of ambient noise derived Rayleigh wave dispersion and P-wave receiver functions. Common conversion point stacking was performed along two representative profiles. We observe clear variations in the seismic velocity and discontinuity structures beneath this region. 1) A sedimentary layer covers the eastern fore-arc trough of the Central Myanmar Basin, with shear velocity less than 2.5 km/s and thickness increasing from ~8 km at 22°N to ~18 km at 23°N. The fore-arc Chindwin basin is evidently thicker than the back-arc Shwebo basin, an abrupt drop in sediment thickness towards the east appears immediately below the Wuntho-Popa magmatic arc. 2) Crustal low-velocity (LV) anomalies (<3.3 km/s) in the Indo-Burma Ranges probably reflect the Bengal sediments accreted to the toe of the overlying Burma plate, 3) The underlying LV layer with a thickness of over 20 km below the Burma Moho (30–40 km in depth) is indicative of the eastward subduction of the Indian continental crust, the top boundary of which is imaged with a dip angle of ~20°. 4) Upper mantle LV anomalies filling the majority of the back-arc domain at depths greater than 60 km display a connection to a small-scale, subcrustal LV body beneath the Monywa volcano, possibly forming a fluid- or melt-rich mantle channel.

Eocene deformation of the NE Tibetan Plateau: Indications from magnetostratigraphic constraints on the oldest sedimentary sequence in the Linxia Basin

The process and mechanism of deformation in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (NETP) are significant for understanding the remote effects of the India-Eurasia collision. Although increasingly more research has extensively addressed the post-Oligocene NETP growth history over the past two decades, geological dating of early Cenozoic sediments remains sparse, hampering our understanding of early-stage tectonic growth in this region. Here, we present magnetostratigraphic results from the oldest sedimentary record between ~54 and 40 Ma in the western part of the Linxia Basin based on correlation with the geomagnetic polarity time scale. This age exceeds that of the oldest strata previously known (29 Ma) and has great potential for recording paleoclimatic and paleontological evolution in the fossil-rich Linxia Basin. Integrating our paleomagnetic chronology, sedimentary facies, accumulation rate, and provenance results reveals that early-stage Linxia Basin development was associated with Eocene growth of the West Qinling. The U-Pb age distributions of detrital grains from pre-51 Ma strata are characterized by many 200–300 Ma ages; alluvial fans and north-directed paleocurrent data indicate a single and relatively proximal source. The northern segment of the West Qinling was the predominant source supplying sediments to the Linxia Basin before ~51 Ma. Subsequently, a pronounced increase in the sedimentation rate at ~51 Ma and southward migration of the sedimentary system during 51–47.8 Ma demonstrate that extension and fast exhumation of the sediment source occurred. Detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra since ~51 Ma reveal significant increases in Precambrian peaks (1500–2000 Ma and 2300–2600 Ma). These observations suggest accelerated growth of the southern segment of the West Qinling and/or eastern segment of the East Kunlun Shan between 51 and 47.8 Ma. The Eocene basin evolution and accelerated uplift of ranges in the NETP imply near-synchronicity of crustal shortening and deformation across the entire India-Eurasia collision zone.

The role of crustal models in the dynamics of the India–Eurasia collision zone

SUMMARY We investigate how different crustal models can affect the stress field, velocities and associated deformation in the India–Eurasia collision zone. We calculate deviatoric stresses, which act as deformation indicators, from topographic load distribution and crustal heterogeneities coupled with density driven mantle convection constrained by tomography models. We use three different crustal models, CRUST2.0, CRUST1.0 and LITHO1.0 and observe that these models have different crustal thickness and densities. As a result, gravitational potential energy (GPE) calculated based on these densities and crustal thicknesses differ between these models and so do the associated deviatoric stresses. For GPE only models, LITHO1.0 provides a better constraint on deformation as it yields the least misfit (both orientation and relative magnitude) with the surface observations of strain rates, lithospheric stress, plate motions and earthquake moment tensors. However, when the stresses from GPE are added to those associated with mantle tractions arising from density-driven mantle convection, the coupled models in all cases provide a better fit to surface observations. The N–S tensional stresses predicted by CRUST2.0 in this area get reduced significantly due to addition of large N–S compressional stresses predicted by the tomography models S40RTS and SAW642AN leading to an overall strike-slip regime. On the other hand, the hybrid models, SINGH_S40RTS and SINGH_SAW that are obtained by embedding a regional P-wave model, Singh et al., in global models of S40RTS and SAW642AN, predict much lower compression within this area. These hybrid models provide a better constraint on surface observations when coupled with CRUST1.0 in central Tibet, whereas the combined LITHO1.0 plus mantle traction model provides a better fit in some other areas, but with a degradation of fit in central Tibet.

Geomorphic expressions of collisional tectonics in the Qilian Shan, north eastern Tibetan Plateau

The Qilian Shan, north eastern Tibetan Plateau, is an area of active deformation caused by convergence in the India-Eurasia collision zone. Geomorphic indices capture the landscape response to competition between tectonics and climate, reflecting the spatial distribution of erosion. We use geomorphic indices (hypsometric integral (HI), normalised channel steepness (ksn), elevation-relief ratio (ZR) and surface roughness (SR)) to identify areas of active deformation and erosion, highlight landscape variations and we interpret the results for potential tectonic and climatic drivers. High HI (> 0.15), ksn (> 100) and low ZR (< 2) occur in the hanging wall of thrust faults, consistent with active uplift of these structures. Relatively high HI (> 0.15) and ksn (> 100) values in the eastern region are attributed to thrust parallel rivers in this region excavating wide valleys between the faults. The east-west precipitation variation across the Qilian Shan (>500 mm/yr to <100 mm/yr) is not a first order control on the regional landscape. There is an abrupt northwards transition from low to high HI, ksn and SR and high to low ZR partially coincident with the left-lateral Haiyuan Fault. We suggest that this transition is due to a difference in deep structure. A south-to-north transition from creeping to locked behaviour on an underlying detachment thrust has previously been suggested to occur along the intersection of this thrust detachment with the overlying Haiyuan Fault, providing a potential explanation for the location of the geomorphic change. Our results show these geomorphic indices to be sensitive to the underlying tectonic structure of the area. These methods could be applied to other fold-and-thrust belts and tectonic settings, to help understand the underlying structure, and the processes responsible for deformation.

Magma system beneath Tengchong volcanic zone inferred from local earthquake seismic tomography

The Tengchong volcanic zone (TCVZ) located in the southeastern part of the India-Eurasia collision zone is characterized by large-scale volcano groups, significant thermal activities and active seismicity. To reveal the magma system, we present new 3-D models of Vp, Vs and Vp/Vs ratio to 10 km depth beneath the TCVZ based on the tomographic inversion of P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes recorded by 10 broadband seismic stations. We use arrival times to construct a reference velocity model. Checkerboard and jackknife tests are carried out to assess the reliability of the inversion results. At shallow depths, we suggest that the complex distribution of high Vp/Vs ratio is the result of a combination of water and magmatic activity. At depth of 10 km, only three areas show obvious high Vp/Vs ratio corresponding to areas of high relative geothermal value observed through hot springs at the surface. We suggest that the three high Vp/Vs ratio areas are magma chambers. The upwelling volatiles heat the water in the shallow layer, inducing the corresponding high relative geothermal value at the surface. Meanwhile, the magma chamber beneath Rehai spring, which corresponds to high He3/He4 ratio, may be fed by mantle magma. We suggest that the Heikongshan volcano and Dayingshan volcano are fed by the magma chambers and that Maanshan volcano is separated from the magma. We also infer that the significant geothermal activity and active seismicity beneath Rehai spring are the result of interaction between the magma and hot-water reservoir.

Normal faulting and viscous buckling in the Tibetan Plateau induced by a weak lower crust

Flow of weak lower crust has been invoked to reconcile observed topographic gradients, uniform elevations, slow seismic velocity, and high conductivity measured in the Tibetan Plateau, with viscosity estimates of 1016–1021 Pa·s. Here we investigate the dynamic response resulting from a range of lower crust viscosities in a 3-D lithospheric-scale geodynamic simulation of the India–Eurasia collision zone to determine bounds of physically viable lower crustal strengths. We show that thickening of the plateau is accommodated through viscous buckling of the upper crust in response to lower crustal flow for a lower crustal viscosity on the order of 1020 Pa·s. This generates two east–west trending bands of surface subsidence and dilatation consistent with observed normal faulting and estimates of vertical velocity. These results suggest viscous buckling of the upper crust, induced by lower crustal flow from gravitational pressure gradients due to high topography, is responsible for the observed extension in Tibet.

Continental underplating after slab break-off

We present three-dimensional numerical models to investigate the dynamics of continental collision, and in particular what happens to the subducted continental lithosphere after oceanic slab break-off. We find that in some scenarios the subducting continental lithosphere underthrusts the overriding plate not immediately after it enters the trench, but after oceanic slab break-off. In this case, the continental plate first subducts with a steep angle and then, after the slab breaks off at depth, it rises back towards the surface and flattens below the overriding plate, forming a thick horizontal layer of continental crust that extends for about 200 km beyond the suture. This type of behaviour depends on the width of the oceanic plate marginal to the collision zone: wide oceanic margins promote continental underplating and marginal back-arc basins; narrow margins do not show such underplating unless a far field force is applied. Our models show that, as the subducted continental lithosphere rises, the mantle wedge progressively migrates away from the suture and the continental crust heats up, reaching temperatures >900 °C. This heating might lead to crustal melting, and resultant magmatism. We observe a sharp peak in the overriding plate rock uplift right after the occurrence of slab break-off. Afterwards, during underplating, the maximum rock uplift is smaller, but the affected area is much wider (up to 350 km). These results can be used to explain the dynamics that led to the present-day crustal configuration of the India–Eurasia collision zone and its consequences for the regional tectonic and magmatic evolution.

Mg, Sr, and O isotope geochemistry of syenites from northwest Xinjiang, China: Tracing carbonate recycling during Tethyan oceanic subduction

Magnesium isotopic compositions of igneous rocks could be potentially used to trace recycling of supracrustal materials. High-δ26Mg granitoids have been previously reported and explained to reflect the involvement of surface weathered materials in their sources. Low-δ26Mg granitoids, however, have not been reported. In this study, we report high-precision Mg isotopic analyses of Cenozoic alkaline syenites and syenogranites from the Kuzigan and Zankan plutons, northwest Xinjiang, China. The Kuzigan syenites were originated from the mantle metasomatized by recycled supracrustal materials, and the syenogranites are differentiated products of the syenites. Both syenites and syenogranites have δ26Mg values (−0.46 to −0.26‰ and −0.41 to −0.17‰, respectively) significantly lighter than the mantle (−0.25±0.07‰, 2SD). No correlation of δ26Mg with either SiO2 or MgO is observed, indicating limited Mg isotope fractionation during alkaline magmatic differentiation. The low δ26Mg of the syenites and syenogranites thus reflects a light Mg isotopic source. This, combined with high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70814 to 0.71105) and negative correlation between δ26Mg and δ18O, suggests that the magma source contains recycled marine carbonates. Modeling of the Mg-O-Sr isotopic data indicates that the recycled carbonate is mainly limestone with minor dolostone, suggesting that the metasomatism occurred at depths shallower than 60 to 120km. Given that the plutons are located at the India–Eurasia collision zone, the carbonate recycling was most likely derived from the subducted Tethyan oceanic crust during the Mesozoic–Cenozoic. Our study suggests that the combined Mg, O, and Sr isotopic studies are powerful for tracing recycled carbonates and identifying their species in mantle sources.

Lithospheric structure in Central Eurasia derived from elevation, geoid anomaly and thermal analysis

Abstract We present new crustal and lithospheric thickness maps for Central Eurasia from the combination of elevation and geoid anomaly data and thermal analysis. The results are strongly constrained by numerous previous data based on seismological and seismic experiments, tomographic imaging and integrated geophysical studies. Our results indicate that high topography regions are associated with crustal thickening that is at a maximum below the Zagros, Himalaya, Tien Shan and the Tibetan Plateau. The stiffer continental blocks that remain undeformed within the continental collision areas are characterized by a slightly thickened crust and flat topography. Lithospheric thickness and crustal thickness show different patterns that highlight an important strain partitioning within the lithosphere. The Arabia–Eurasia collision zone is characterized by a thick lithosphere underneath the Zagros belt, whereas a thin to non-existent lithospheric mantle is observed beneath the Iranian and Anatolian plateaus. Conversely, the India–Eurasia collision zone is characterized by a very thick lithosphere below its southern part as a consequence of the underplating of the cold and stiff Indian lithosphere. Our new model presents great improvements compared to previous global models available for the region, and allows us to discuss major aspects related to the lithospheric structure and acting geodynamic processes in Central Eurasia. Supplementary material: Residual geoid anomaly between different order and degree of filtering, our compilation of crustal thickness from publications and our resulting crustal and lithospheric thickness in .txt format are available at: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18846

Pressure–temperature evolution of Neoproterozoic metamorphism in the Welayati Formation (Kabul Block), Afghanistan

The Welayati Formation, consisting of alternating layers of mica-schist and quartzite with lenses of amphibolite, unconformably overlies the Neoarchean Sherdarwaza Formation of the Kabul Block that underwent Paleoproterozoic granulite-facies and Neoproterozoic amphibolite-facies metamorphic events. To analyze metamorphic history of the Welayati Formation and its relations to the underlying Sherdarwaza Formation, petrographic study and pressure–temperature (P–T) pseudosection modeling were applied to staurolite- and kyanite-bearing mica-schists, which crop out to the south of Kabul City. Prograde metamorphism, identified by inclusion trails and chemical zonation in garnet from the micaschists indicates that the rocks underwent burial from around 6.2kbar at 525°C to maximum pressure conditions of around 9.5kbar at temperatures of around 650°C. Decompression from peak pressures under isothermal or moderate heating conditions are indicated by formation of biotite and plagioclase porphyroblasts which cross-cut and overgrow the dominant foliation. The lack of sillimanite and/or andalusite suggests that cooling and further decompression occurred in the kyanite stability field. The results of this study indicate a single amphibolite-facies metamorphism that based on P–T conditions and age dating correlates well with the Neoproterozoic metamorphism in the underlying Sherdarwaza Formation. The rocks lack any paragenetic evidence for a preceding granulite-facies overprint or subsequent Paleozoic metamorphism. Owing to the position of the Kabul Block, within the India–Eurasia collision zone, partial replacement of the amphibolite-facies minerals in the micaschist could, in addition to retrogression of the Neoproterozoic metamorphism, relate to deformation associated with the Alpine orogeny.

About this title ‐ Tectonics of the Himalaya

The Himalayan mountain belt, which developed during the India–Asia collision starting about 55 Ma ago, is a dramatically active orogen and it is regarded as the classic collisional orogen. It is characterized by an impressively continuous 2500 km of tectonic units, thrusts and normal faults, as well as large volumes of high-grade metamorphic rocks and granites exposed at the surface. This constitutes an invaluable field laboratory, where amazing crustal sections can be observed directly in very deep gorges. It is possible to unravel the tectonic and metamorphic evolution of litho-units, to observe the mechanisms of exhumation of deep-seated rocks and the propagation of the deformation. Himalayan tectonics has been the target of many studies from numerous international researchers over the years. In the last 15 years there has been an explosion of data and theories from both geological and geophysical perspectives. This book presents the results of integrated multidisciplinary studies, including geology, petrology, magmatism, geochemistry, geochronology and geophysics, of the structures and processes affecting the continental lithosphere. These processes and their spatial and temporal evolution have major consequences on the geometry and kinematics of the India–Eurasia collision zone.

Eocene seawater retreat from the southwest Tarim Basin and implications for early Cenozoic tectonic evolution in the Pamir Plateau

The Pamir Plateau lies in the western end of the India–Eurasia collision zone, being an unusual example for studying crustal shortening and evolution of the Neotethys Ocean. Here we present new results from the southwestern margin of the Tarim Basin for discussing tectonic history in the northern Pamir Plateau as well as for providing precise dates of the final seawater retreat from the studied region. Our results indicate that early uplift of the northern edge of the Pamir Plateau occurred at about 55Ma, but this uplift preceded the closure of the link between the Neotethys and the Tarim Basin. Five marine transgression and regression cycles occurred during the early Eocene, mostly in response to global eustatic sea level fluctuations, and the final seawater retreat from the southwest Tarim Basin occurred at about 47Ma. Another uplift episode started 34Ma, supported by the accumulation of coarse molasse deposits as well as our palynological evidence, suggesting that the convergence between the Pamir Plateau and the Tian Shan ranges accelerated since the beginning of the early Oligocene.

The late Quaternary slip-rate of the Har-Us-Nuur fault (Mongolian Altai) from cosmogenic 10Be and luminescence dating

The Altai range (western Mongolia) accommodates NNE–SSW shortening across the northern India–Eurasia collision zone by dextral slip on faults trending NNW–SSE, and anticlockwise, vertical-axis rotations of fault-bounded blocks. However, fault slip-rates and the way in which faulting evolves over time are poorly understood, and form the motivation for this study. We focussed on the Har-Us-Nuur fault, a major transpressional fault bounding the eastern margin of the Altai. Three abandoned alluvial fan surfaces, each displaced right-laterally by the fault, were targeted for dating with cosmogenic 10Be and quartz optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). The first surface (A2) shows an exponential decrease in 10Be with increasing depth, with a significant inherited component. Modelling this profile yielded a minimum age of 74.1 ka. Material from the same sampling pit was dated at ~ 19 ka with OSL, but we consider this younger age to be incorrect, possibly due to feldspar contamination or abnormal quartz OSL characteristics. The A2 surface is displaced by 175 m, implying a (maximum) dextral slip-rate of 2.4 ± 0.4 mm yr − 1 . A second fan surface (F1) was dated at ~ 6 ka with OSL and shows little variation in 10Be with depth, consistent with this young age. The inherited component is higher than for A2, indicating contrasting levels of inheritance for different periods of fan aggradation. A final surface (F2) shows scattered 10Be concentrations and lacks material suitable for OSL, so cannot be dated precisely. Using the total vertical displacement across the fault, we place the initiation of movement on the fault at ~ 2 Ma, significantly later than the late Oligocene to Miocene (28–5 Ma) onset of shortening in the Altai region. This suggests that deformation in the Altai has widened over time to incorporate new faults at the range margins (such as Har-Us-Nuur), possibly because older faults in the range interior have rotated about vertical axes into orientations that require work to be done against gravity.

The Geological Evolution of the Tibetan Plateau

The geological evolution of the Tibetan plateau is best viewed in a context broader than the India-Eurasia collision zone. After collision about 50 million years ago, crust was shortened in western and central Tibet, while large fragments of lithosphere moved from the collision zone toward areas of trench rollback in the western Pacific and Indonesia. Cessation of rapid Pacific trench migration ( approximately 15 to 20 million years ago) coincided with a slowing of fragment extrusion beyond the plateau and probably contributed to the onset of rapid surface uplift and crustal thickening in eastern Tibet. The latter appear to result from rapid eastward flow of the deep crust, probably within crustal channels imaged seismically beneath eastern Tibet. These events mark a transition to the modern structural system that currently accommodates deformation within Tibet.

Active tectonics of an apparently aseismic region: distributed active strike-slip faulting in the Hangay Mountains of central Mongolia

SUMMARY We identify and describe a series of east–west left-lateral strike-slip faults (named the SonginoMargats, the Hag Nuur, the Uliastay and the South Hangay fault systems) in the Hangay mountains of central Mongolia: an area that has little in the way of recorded seismicity and which is often considered as a rigid block within the India–Eurasia collision zone. The strikeslip faults of central Mongolia constitute a previously unrecognized hazard in this part of Mongolia. Each of the strike-slip faults show indications of late Quaternary activity in the form of aligned sequences of sag-ponds and pressure-ridges developed in alluvial deposits. Total bed-rock displacements of ∼3 km are measured on both the Songino-Margats and South Hangay fault systems. Bed-rock displacements of 11 km are observed across the Hag Nuur fault. Cumulative offset across the Uliastay fault systems are unknown but are unlikely to be large. We have no quantitative constraint on the age of faulting in the Hangay. The ≤20 km of cumulative slip on the Hangay faults might, at least in part, be inherited from earlier tectonic movements. Our observations show that, despite the almost complete absence of instrumentally recorded seismicity in the Hangay, this part of Mongolia is cut through by numerous distributed strike-slip faults that accommodate regional left-lateral shear between Siberia and China. Central Mongolia is thus an important component of the India–Eurasia collision that would be overlooked in models of the active tectonics based on the distribution of seismicity. We suggest that active faults such as those identified in the Hangay of Mongolia might exist in other, apparently aseismic, regions within continental collision zones.