Larvae Index Research Articles

Spatial-Temporal Distribution Pattern of Dengue Fever and Spatial Relationship of the Aedes Mosquito Larvae Index in Phuket Province

Spatial-Temporal Distribution Pattern of Dengue Fever and Spatial Relationship of the Aedes Mosquito Larvae Index in Phuket Province

Cd pollution in agroforestry ecosystems: An abiotic factor affecting the passive and active lethal efficiency of Beauveria bassiana to Lymantria dispar larvae

This study evaluated the effects of cadmium (Cd) exposure on the passive and active lethal efficiency of Beauveria bassiana (Bb) to Lymantria dispar larvae and analyzed the corresponding mechanism from mycelial vegetative growth, fungal and host nutrient competition, and fungal spore performance. The results showed that the passive lethal efficiency of Bb to Cd-exposed L. dispar larvae was significantly higher than that of larvae not exposed to Cd. After Bb infection, the fungal biomass in living larvae and the mycelium encapsulation index of dead larvae were significantly decreased under Cd exposure. Cd exposure damaged the mycelial structure, as well as inhibited the mycelial growth and sporulation quantity. A total of 15 and 39 differentially accumulated mycotoxin metabolites were identified in Bb mycelia treated with low Cd and high Cd, respectively, and the contents of these differentially accumulated mycotoxins in the low Cd and high Cd treatment groups were overall lower than those in the control group. Nutrient content and energy metabolism-related gene expression were significantly decreased in Cd-exposed larvae, both before and after Bb infection. Trehalose supplementation alleviated the nutritional deficiency of larvae under the combined treatment of Cd and Bb and decreased the larval susceptibility to Bb. Compared with untreated Bb, the lethal efficiency of low Cd-exposed Bb to larvae increased significantly, while high Cd-exposed Bb was significantly less lethal to larvae. Cd exposure promoted at low concentrations but inhibited the hydrophobicity and adhesion of spores at higher concentrations. Spore germination rate and stress resistance of Bb decreased significantly under the treatment of both Cd concentrations. Taken together, heavy metals can be regarded as an abiotic environmental factor that directly affects the lethal efficiency of Bb to insect pests.

Analysis of Aedes Aegypti Larval Density on The Potential Transmission of Dengue Fever

Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) is caused by the dengue virus transmitted through the Aedes aegypti mosquito. DHF remains a health problem in Indonesia. Based on data from the Ministry of Health, there were 184 cases of the disease in 2022, an increase of 94.8% compared to 2021, which had 73,518 cases. According to the Central Statistics Agency of South Sumatra Province, the number of DHF cases in South Sumatra was 2,854 cases, with the highest number in the city of Palembang at 908 cases. This condition requires serious attention. The aim of this study is to analyze the potential transmission of DHF based on entomological evidence in the Sukarami district of Palembang. The method used in the research is a cross-sectional study conducted in December 2023, involving 92 households in the Sukarami sub-district, with a total of 552 containers. The survey results of larval identification under a microscope showed a Larval Free Index of 45.7%, a Container Index of Aedes aegypti larvae of 56.0%, a house index of 73.9%, and a Breteau index of 152.2%. The results of entomological indices indicate a high density of DHF vector mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, which means that this area has a high risk of DHF transmission, thus requiring the control of Aedes aegypti larvae and the eradication of DHF. breeding sites for the vector.

Home Environment and Larva Indices: A Cross-Sectional Study in the Indonesian Transition to Endemic COVID-19

This study aimed to assess the association between home environment and larval indices during the COVID-19 pandemic transition. A cross-sectional design was carried out in this study. The population was the houses in two villages of Gamping Sub-District, Sleman, Yogyakarta Province. The sample was calculated by considering the confidence interval value of 95%, the margin error of 5%, and the distribution response of 50%. Accordingly, the minimum sample size was 207 households. The chi-square test was used to analyze the data. The home environment was associated with the value of the container index (CI), indicated by a significant difference p-value of 0.008 with a prevalence ratio of 3.630, which means an unhealthy house will increase the value of the container index by 3.630 times greater. Sanitation of the home environment showed a significant relationship with the value of the container index (CI) with a p-value of 0.019 and a prevalence ratio of 2.625, which means that poor sanitation conditions will increase the value of the container index by 2.625 times. The health of the home environment is associated with the mosquito larvae index.

Assessment and management of the temperate stock of Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax) in the south of California Current System

Knowing the population dynamics and the variations in the abundance of the Pacific sardine is essential for suitable fishing management. Due to the possibility that the different stocks of Sardinops sagax that can inhabit the south of California Current System (CCS) were present in the catches, the caught of the temperate stock were discriminated from the total landed and, subsequently was assessed the dynamics of temperate stock of Pacific sardine (TSPS) for the period from 1989 to 2021. For the above, we use a statistical analysis of catch-at-age (ACE), which is an integrated analysis model that includes three indices of relative abundance (catch rate, acoustic surveys and evaluations of eggs and larvae). Acoustic indices and capture rate (CPUE) denoted changes in population abundance better than the index of eggs and larvae. The total biomass has shown great interannual variability oscillating between 853,476 and 1,592,519 t; a similar trend was shown by the spawning biomass, oscillating between 404,189 t and 770,484 t. With the modified Ricker Stock-Recruitment model, the minimum biomass Bmin = 50,000 t and the exploitation rate in Emrsy = 0.251 year−1 were estimated. Considering behavior of proportion between the recorded catch and the estimated biologically acceptable catch to each year (Cobs/BAC), we can infer that the TSPS has been sustainably exploited throughout analyzed period, except for 2014 and 2017 fishing seasons, when the BAC was exceeded by around 20%. Harvest control rule, by depending on a biomass fraction, estimated with an integrated model ACE, is considered a management suitable strategy to TSPS.

Differences in the link between female moth oviposition and larval fitness in Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) over seasonal variation of host fruit species

Oriental fruit moth (OFM) is a cosmopolitan borer pest. Adults migrate among peach, pear or apple orchards. However, the association of female oviposition with larval fitness over seasonal variation of fruit species have not been reported. This study investigated female oviposition and larval fitness during four sampling months of peach, apple and pear related with maturity. Infested fruits were investigated in three orchards. These results showed that females laid fewer eggs on apple than peach or pear in June and July, but not May and August. Fitness index of larvae on pear was lower than peach or apple in May, June and August, except for July. In June, larvae failed completely to bore into pear. The ranking of infestation ratio was peach orchard (from June to July) > pear orchard (July onward) > apple orchard (late June onward). Based on the above results, peach (June and July) and pear (July and August) were more suitable than apple (June, July and August), whereas peach (May), apple (May) and pear (May and June) were unsuitable for OFM.

Optimization of the production of black soldier flies Hermetia Illucens by controlling biological parameters in Côte d'Ivoire

This study was conducted at the ENS vivarium located at the UFHB of Cocody in the city of Abidjan in the south of Ivory Coast, with a temperature of about 28° C and a humidity of about 70%. It aimed to study some biological parameters of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens. For achieve this goal, it was a question of studying the different stages of development of the black soldier fly and also studying the evolution of its growth parameters. The flies were captured, kept in an aviary and observed from the fly stage to the end of the pupal stage (emergence of the first flies). Data on the duration of the different stages of development and the evolution of larval growth parameters (average weight, length, width, Fulton index, length/width ratio, survival and mortality rate of larvae) have been taken. This study revealed that the life cycle of Hermetia illucens is between 31 and 43 days, with an incubation time of eggs that lasts 2 days, a larval phase of 14 days, a pupation of 10 days and a duration of adult life of 8 days on average. In addition, this study reports a low mortality rate of larvae (3.45%), larvae much longer (19.46 mm), wider (6 mm) and plumper.

Rhyzopertha dominica Fabricius (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae): Growth and Developement on Six Different Varieties of Maize (Zea mays L.)

The research aimed to evaluate the Rhyzoperta dominica growth and development on six maize varieties. The No-choice method was adopted to evaluate the R. dominica life cylce from February to September 2018. Based on the result, the R. dominica growth and development were appropriate to be examined by the number of eggs, larvae, pupae, and F1 progenies and the percentage of weight loss rather than using the development time, the stage of development time, the median development time, the growth index of larvae, the potential of biotic, and susceptibility index. The development and the median development time were positively correlated with number of eggs, larvae, pupae, and F1 progenies. The R. dominica growth and development were faster on maize ‘ROK’ variety than other maize varieties. The highest number of eggs, larvae, pupae, and F1 progenies and the percentage of weight loss were detected on ‘ROK’ variety. On the other hand, the lowest growth and the longest development were observed on ‘Anoman’ variety. The variation of the R. dominica growth and development was due to the variation of the physical and biochemical characteristics of maize varieties.

An improved artificial diet for larvae of the seven-spotted ladybird beetle Coccinella septempunctata L.

The seven-spotted ladybird beetle, Coccinella septempunctata, is an important predator of soft-bodied insect pests that can be reared on both natural and artificial diets. In this study, an artificial diet for larvae was optimized by using a four-factor and three-level orthogonal design. Shrimp, pollen, lard, and honey were selected as the four key factors, and their effects on larval survival, development, and pupation were assessed. The results showed that an increased shrimp content of 21.85% in the diet could shorten developmental time and increase larval survival. Increased pollen content of 4.86% improved both pupation and survival, and a lard content of 3.03% shortened developmental time and increased survival and pupation success. The biological indices of ladybird larvae were optimal when honey content was 10.02%.

The Effectiveness of Net to Reduce the Entomological Indices in Dengue-Endemic Areas in Balikpapan, Indonesia

BACKGROUND: Drums and cisterns are ubiquitous water storages in Indonesian households, seldom being drained and left open to create access for the rainwater, providing a favorable breeding site for dengue vector. The bigger the container, the more it produces immature mosquitoes that are soon to be mature, increasing the entomological indices and raising the potency of cases in the area. Previous studies revealed that the net covering the reservoir was able to effectively protect the water from mosquito oviposition; therefore, a modification of the net was made. AIM: The aim of this study is to discover whether the net as a cover for water containers is effective in reducing the entomological indices in dengue-endemic areas. METHODS: The quasi-experimental study with pretest and posttest control group design, involved 3 intervention and 3 control clusters, 150 houses which have 672 water-holding containers with 116 large containers were intervened with non-insecticide tulle nets for 3 months. The larval presence data were performed by larval survey. RESULTS: It revealed that net reduced the container index (CI) in intervened large containers 18%–84% as well as the environment entomological indices in general in study areas: CI decreased 75%–79%, house index decreased 65%–70%, and Breteau index decreased 75.5%–78.7%, while Free Larva Index rose 73.7%–88%. CONCLUSIONS: The nets had lowered the CI in the intervened large container and affected the entomological indices of the surrounding environment, by blocking the mosquitos-water contact and preventing the young mosquitos that had developed in the containers from flying out.

Proximate composition and lipid nutritional indices of larvae and pupae of the edible Huhu beetle (Prionoplus reticularis) endemic to New Zealand

The proximate composition, fatty acid profile, and lipid nutritional indices of the edible Huhu grub development stages (small, medium, large larvae, and pupae) of the New Zealand endemic beetle (Prionoplus reticularis), were investigated. Ash (1.5–3.2%, dry weight (DW)) and crude protein (26.2 – 30.5%, DW) contents were similar across the development stages. Lipid content was highest in pupae (58.4%, DW). Between 10 and 13 fatty acids were found in each of the four development stages. Palmitic acid (7.45 – 13.95 g/100 g DW), oleic acid (22.04 – 40.54 g/100 g DW), and linoleic acid (0.82 – 1.47 g/100 g DW) were the most abundant saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty (PUFA) acid, respectively. The PUFA/SFA ratio ranged from 0.07 to 0.09, while the ω6/ω3 ratio ranged between 16.23 and 29.54. The hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic acid ratio ranged from 2.89 to 3.15. The atherogenicity indices ranged between 0.32 and 0.37, the thrombogenicity index range was 1.63 – 1.99, and the health-promoting index range was 0.07 – 0.11. Overall, the results of this study indicate that Huhu grub larvae and pupae contain relatively high levels of lipids, but they differ in their fatty acid profile and lipid nutritional indices.

Impact of morphological traits in isogenic cotton lines on consumption-utilization indices of spotted bollworm Earias vittella (Fab) larvae

Consumption-utilization indices of fourth instar Earias vittella larvae on five cotton isogenic lines viz., okra leaf, frego bract, nectariless, red pigmented and glandless were evaluated at a constant temperature of 30 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod of 16 : 8 L : D. The relative growth rate was more on glandless (0.59) and okra leaf (0.59) and less in red pigmented (0.51). The assimilation efficiency was highest on red pigmented (71.54%) followed by H-777 (70.92%) and lowest on glandless (65.97%). The relative consumption rate was more on nectariless (11.68) followed by H-777 (11.58) and less on frego bract (10.63). The efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) and ingested food (ECI) was maximum on glandless (8.56; 5.57) and minimum on red pigmented (6.80; 4.74), respectively. Considering the high total food consumption, growth rate, consumption rate, ECD and ECI of E. vittella, glandless was the most suitable line followed by H-777 whereas frego bract was the least suitable line.

Nutritional phenotype underlines the performance trade-offs of Drosophila suzukii on different fruit diets

Animals confined to different dietary conditions often exhibit distinct, sometimes contrasting, nutritional phenotypes and performance outcomes. This is especially true for many oviparous insects whose developmental diets can vary depending on the mother's egg-laying site selection. Much research on the relationship between preference and performance in insects has focused on larval success, which overlooks the complexities of dietary effects on diverse performance parameters across life stages and potential trade-offs between those parameters. Furthermore, the connection between diet-induced nutritional phenotype and performance trade-offs is not well understood. Here, using Drosophila suzukii, we quantify multiple performance indices of larvae and adults reared on five host fruits of different protein-to-sugar ratios (P:S) which have previously been shown to differ in attractiveness to fly foraging and oviposition. Our results demonstrate robust diet-specific performance trade-offs, with fly fecundity, larval development time, pupal size, and adult weight superior in flies reared on the high P:S raspberry diet, in contrast to the low P:S grape diet; but the reverse was found in terms of adult starvation resistance. Notably, the contrasting performance trade-offs are readily explained by the fly nutritional phenotype, reflected in the protein and energy (glucose and lipid) contents of flies reared on the two fruits. Together, our results provide experimental evidence for metabolic plasticity of D. suzukii reared on different fruits and the possibility of using adult nutritional phenotype as a marker for diet and performance outcomes.

ANALYSIS OF Aedes spp. LARVAE DENSITY IN THE TRADITIONAL MARKET TALLO DISTRICT MAKASSAR CITY

This study aims to determine the density of Aedes spp. larvae at the traditional market, Tallo District, Makassar City. This research is a type of descriptive research that describes the density of Aedes spp. larvae by conducting a limited characterization of the area which is the object of research. This research was conducted by taking samples of larvae in traditional markets in Tallo District, Makassar City and identifying samples at the Entomology Laboratory, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Hasanuddin University. The results showed that the larvae index obtained in the three traditional markets was included in the category of moderate risk of transmission because it was on a scale of 4 to 5, namely the CI value = 20.45% in Cidu Market, in Pannampu Market the CI value = 20.41% and the value of CI = 20.41%. CI = 11.11% in Paotere Fish Market. In conclusion, Aedes spp. was found living and breeding in the three traditional markets in Tallo District, Makassar City

DEGRADATION OF SOME POLYSTRENE USING BEETLE LARVAE (TENEBRIO MOLITOR L.)

One alternative to waste processing polystyrene is to use Tenebrio molitor larvae. This study aims to determine the increase in body length and weight, rate of degradation, and value of Waste Reduction Index (WRI) of larvae T. molitor. This study used laboratory experimental using completely randomized design experimental design model (CRD) data analysis with control and 4 feed treatments. Each treatment level was repeated 5 times in order to obtain 25 experimental units. Larvae were reared in a plastic container containing 10 larvae. Each larvae were given bran feed for control and polystrene for treatment, each feed as much as 1 gram. The polystyrene used were food packaging, walls, electronic packaging, and ice boxes. Larvae were measured for length and body weight every 3 days for 30 days. Parameters observed were increase in length and weight of larvae, rate of degradation and WRI values.The highest mean value of increase in larval length on the polystrene wall was 1.69 cm. The lowest value was polystyrene food packaging (1.59 cm). The average weight gain of larvae has a uniform value in the control and treatment of 0.07 gr. The highest degradation rate and WRI values were polystyrene wall and electronic packaging at 0.019 and 0.63%. while the lowest values were polystyrene food packaging at 0.11 and 0.37%.

KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE TOWARDS DENGUE FEVER PREVENTION - AEDES LARVAE INDICES OF HOUSEHOLDS IN HUE CITY - A CASE CONTROL STUDY

Background: Dengue fever (DF) is a life-threatening infectious disease, which was transmitted by the Aedes mosquito, the best preventive strategy is focusing on killing mosquitoes, larvae and preventing mosquito bites, based on the awareness of DF and correctly practicing of DF prevention in the community. A study in Malaysia (2011-2012) showed that lack of knowledge and ineffectiveness in practicing preventive measures could be a risk of DF. This study was commenced to assess the level of knowledge and practice towards DF prevention, besides identifying the Aedes larval indices of households in Hue city and investigate risk factors for the development of DF. Materials and method: We conducted a case-control study with a defined group of 61 DF cases from May 1 to October 31, 2019, the selection of cases and controls in the ratio of 1:2 with the same basic characteristics (age, gender, location); interview and observe based on the structured questionnaire to collect data, data was analysed using SPSS through a few statistical analyses. Results: We found that 39.3% participants in cases and 41.8% participants in controls having good knowledge regarding DF and only 26.2% participants in cases and 33.6% participants in controls having good practices of DF prevention. Aedes larvae indices of cases is higher than that of controls, there were no statistically significant differences in the house index from cases and controls (p>0.05). The risk factor analysis indicated that the job that spend less time at home more at risk of DF than the others (OR=2.79, 95%OR: 1.32-5.87), no use mosquitoes’ essential oil/repellent (OR=2.21, 95%OR: 1.04-4.68), the stable near house (OR=4.86, 95%OR: 1.21-19.51) were independent risk factors for the development of DF. Conclusion: A large number of participants didn’t demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and the right practice towards DF prevention, there were no statistically significant differences in the house index from cases and controls, there was a significant correlation between job, environment, use safeguard measures and a risk of DF. Key words: knowledge, practice, larval indices, dengue fever.

Influence of the size and form of Artemia sp. nauplii on the growth and survival of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus Mitchill) larvae

Abstract The aim of the study was to determine the influence of the size and form of Artemia sp. feed on the rearing indices of Atlantic sturgeon larvae. In the experiment, the nauplius sizes used were 480 µm (group AD), 430 µm (group AM), and 430 µm frozen nauplii (group AI). After three weeks of rearing, the sturgeon from group AD had the highest mean body weight of 0.131 g that was statistically significantly different from groups AM (0.071 g) and AI (0.033 g). The longest total length was noted in group AD (2.8 cm) and was statistically different from the others (P ≤ 0.05). Specific growth rate in groups AD and AM was 14.7 and 11.8% d−1, respectively, and these values differed statistically from those in group AI at 7.8% d−1. The highest survival rate was recorded in group AD at 60.6%, while the lowest was noted in group AI at 15.6%, and the differences between these two groups were statistically significant. The results of the experiment indicated that a feed of live 480 µm Artemia sp. nauplius significantly accelerated the growth rates and increased the survival rates of Atlantic sturgeon larvae.

Spatial distribution of dengue vector mosquitoes in Malang City, East Java, Indonesia (case study: Jatimulyo Village, Lowokwaru Sub-district)

Jatimulyo Sub-district is one of the highest areas of DHF sufferers in Malang City. Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) is transmitted through the Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus (the mosquito vectors). This study aims to identify diurnal mosquitoes at in-door and out-door place and to analyse the distribution of DHF vector mosquitoes in Jatimulyo Village, Lowokwaru Sub-district, Malang City. This research conducted in November 2019 until May 2020. Sampling of mosquito and larvae was carried out in 1 house/hamlet, there was determined using purposive sampling method and it carried out within active mosquito biting hours (7.00 a.m - 5.00 p.m). Larvae and imago were captured at in-door and out-door places then there were identified using Guidelines book for DHF entomology surveys and the identification book of Aedes (in bahasa). The survey of larvae & mosquito predators on container, and population mobility were carried out by interviewing homeowners. Abiotic factors measured include of temperature, light intensity, humidity, and wind speed. The location coordinates were recorded with GPS. Data analysis using Microsoft Excel 2010, SPSS 16.0 and QGIS 3.12.1. The results showed that there were 2 mosquitoes Ae. albopictus at the first hamlet outdoor sampling point and one Ae. aegypti at the ninth hamlet outdoor. Larvae Ae. albopictus was found in the sampling points of the sixth and eighth hamlet (in-door place), whereas Ae. aegypti was found at the sampling point in the seventh hamlet (in-door place). The distribution of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes can be influenced by mosquito abundance value, Larva Index value, number of predators, number of container, age population of resident, and mobility of resident.

Nutritional Responses of the Black Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.), Larvae under Toxicity Effects of Five Wild Botanical Extracts from Sinai, Egypt

Aims: To identify the chemical components of five wild Botanical oils (BOs) and their larvicidal influences on the anti-nutritional indices of the 4th instar larvae of Agrotis ipsilon.
 Study Design: A comparative study with the randomized design, using five plant Extracts replicated five times.
 Place and Duration of Study: Mentha longifolia, Artemisia judaica, Majorana hortensis, Origanum syriacum, and Achillea santolina were collected from the Sinai desert, Egypt. Study procedures were done at the Laboratory of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Egypt, between December 2018 and June 2020.
 Methodology: An analysis of the tested BOs components was done using a Shimadzu GC-9A gas chromatograph. Five sub-lethal concentrations of each plant were prepared (5 replicate/treatment) to evaluate medium lethality against A. ipsilon larvae (20 larvae/replicate). Untreated larvae were used distilled water only as a control. Ten larvae of each treatment were treated with only one LC50 to estimate the effect of different tested BOs on anti-nutritional Activities.
 Results: The main component of the M. longifolia and A. judaica oil was Piperitone at 39.79 and 37.55%, respectively; whereas the M. hortensis, O. syriacum, and A. santolina oil was Terpinen-4-ol, Thymol, and Fragranyl acetate at 29.82, 31.21, and 25.67%, respectively. According to LC50 of the tested BOs, the toxicity of A. judaica, M. longifolia, O. syriacum, respectively, were the most effective oils, while M. hortensis and A. santolina oils were the least susceptibilities. The more toxic oils reduced food consumption, causing a significant decrease in relative consumption rate (RCR), growth rate (RGR), and efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI)/digested (ECD). The previous oils also showed a significant increase in metabolic cost (MC) and anti-feeding activities against A. ipsilon larvae compared to M. hortensis and A. santolina.
 Conclusion: It is suggested that A. judaica and M. longifolia extracts contain high Piperitone content and could be accepted as toxicants to control A. ipsilon.

Polyphagous caterpillars of Spodoptera litura switch from a trap crop to the main crop, improve fitness, and shorten generation time

Trap crops are used for pulling the pest load from the main crops toward themselves. Here, we report a switching by a polyphagous pest, Spodoptera litura, from trap crop castor to main crop eggplant during its mid-larval development. In the eggplant–castor mixed field, adults oviposit exclusively on castor. However, 3rd and 4th instar castor-grown larvae migrate to eggplants. Host choice assays for adults and larvae conducted in the controlled environment and the nutritional indices of castor and eggplant-feeding larvae revealed that the natural enemies did not influence the host switch. The host switch was rather associated with larvae’s enhanced digestion and metabolism. It shortened the development time and increased the eclosion success on eggplant. Mother-selected castor is suitable for the early instars and eggplant is for the later instars, indicating that the host switching was not because of the mother’s erroneous host choice but has evolved as an advantageous behavior. S. litura’s ability to switch hosts in the same ontogenic phase and reduce the generation time can contribute to an additional generation within a cropping season and endanger the critical growth stage of fruiting. Our findings support the ‘mother knows the best’ concept and annex that the larvae can also possess the ability to know the best. Such ability in different ontogenic stages can be fundamental to the exceptional adaptability of species like S. litura.