Index Of Difficulties Research Articles

Efektivitas Penggunaan Modul Larutan Penyangga Berbasis Inkuiri Terbimbing Terhadap Hasil Belajar Peserta Didik Kelas XI SMA Negeri 13 Padang

This studies aims to determine the effectiveness of guides inquiry-based buffer solution modules in achieving learning outcomes of students in class XI MIPA SMA Negeri 13 Padang. The type of this research is pre-experimental with a one-group pretest-posttest design. The subject of this study was the student of XI MIPA 2, which was taken through the purposive sampling techniques. The research instrument was 15 multiple choices question for pretest and posttest, which already tested for validities, reliabilities, index of difficulties of questions, and discriminating index. There was an increase of the average students learning outcome in this study. The data had normal distribution and homogenous variance. The t result showed that tcrit (10.66) score is bigger than ttable (2.73). The N-Gain value was medium, means that the guided in guide inquiry-based buffer solution module is effective to improve students learning outcomes of XI MIPA SMA Negeri 13 Padang students.

Arousal-modulated memory encoding and retrieval in adults with autism spectrum disorder.

Recently, we have shown that pupil dilation during a recognition memory task can serve as an index of memory retrieval difficulties in autism. At the time of publication, we were unaware of specific data-analysis methods that can be used to shed further light on the origins of such memory related pupil dilation. Specifically, by distinguishing "tonic" from "phasic" changes in pupil dilation and considering their temporal progression, it is possible to draw inferences about the functional integrity of a locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system (LC-NE) that is known to play a key role in regulating memory encoding and retrieval processes. We therefore apply these analyses to our previously published eye-tracking data of adults with ASD (N=24) and neurotypical development (TD, N=30) during the recognition memory task. In this re-analysis, we related pupil dilation during encoding and retrieval to recognition accuracy in a per-trial analysis of linear mixed models. In ASD, we replicated attenuated recognition accuracy, which was accompanied by attenuated pupil dilation during encoding and retrieval. Group differences in pupil dilation during retrieval occurred late during the trial (after 1.75 s) and indicated an altered top-down processing like attenuated attribution of semantic salience in response to previously encoded stimuli. In addition, only in the ASD group were higher pupil dilation during encoding and lower pupil dilation during retrieval associated with decreased recognition accuracy. This supports altered modulation of memory encoding and retrieval in ASD, with LC-NE phasic activity as promising underlying mechanism. LAY SUMMARY: We investigated the changes of pupil size during memory testing in autism spectrum disorder. Adults with ASD remembered fewer items correctly than neurotypical individuals (TD). This reduced memory was related to increased pupillary responses at study and decreased pupil dilation at test only for adults with ASD indicating a different modulation of memory by the locus coeruleus.

Face Processing and Social Functioning in Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors.

Pediatric brain tumor survivors (PBTS) experience deficits in social functioning. Facial expression and identity recognition are key components of social information processing and are widely studied as an index of social difficulties in youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other neurodevelopmental conditions. This study evaluated facial expression and identity recognition among PBTS, youth with ASD, and typically developing (TD) youth, and the associations between these face processing skills and social impairments. PBTS (N = 54; ages 7-16) who completed treatment at least 2 years prior were matched with TD (N = 43) youth and youth with ASD (N = 55) based on sex and IQ. Parents completed a measure of social impairments and youth completed a measure of facial expression and identity recognition. Groups significantly differed on social impairments (p < .001), with youth with ASD scoring highest followed by PBTS and lastly TD youth. Youth with ASD performed significantly worse on the two measures of facial processing, while TD youth and PBTS were not statistically different. The association of facial expression recognition and social impairments was moderated by group, such that PBTS with higher levels of social impairment performed worse on the expression task compared to TD and ASD groups (p < .01, η2 = 0.07). Variability in face processing may be uniquely important to the social challenges of PBTS compared to other neurodevelopmental populations. Future directions include prospectively examining associations between facial expression recognition and social difficulties in PBTS and face processing training as an intervention for PBTS.

Ka\u017edyj den\u2019 turist *otdoxnul na plja\u017ee. An event-related potentials study on the processing of aspectual violation in Russian iterative sentences

The treatment of verbal aspect in Russian grammar and its interaction with lexical semantics are controversial matters. We address these issues from a psycholinguistic perspective. We conducted an EEG study with 14 native Russian speakers processing 160 sentences in the unrestrictedly iterative meaning; the sentences were either correct or contained semantic, morpho-syntactic, or aspectual violations (e.g., Každyj večer otec *zasnulpfvna divane. ‘Every evening the father *fell asleep on the sofa’). Processing the aspectual violation resulted in a P600, which is typical for processing morpho-syntactic violations and usually is interpreted as an index of difficulties in syntactic (re-)analysis, while an N400, which is typical for processing lexico-semantic violations, could not be observed. Our results show that Russian speakers must make more effort to analyze aspectually incorrect sentences compared with aspectually correct sentences. Processing aspectual violations in Russian clearly resembles processing of morpho-syntactic violations. This is in line with the interpretation of aspect as a typical grammatical category.

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS DURING PANDEMIC. A CASE STUDY ON A FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL-POLITICAL SCIENCE UNDERGRADUATES.

In this paper, we present some key features regarding a quantitative panel study conducted in 2020 at the Faculty of Philosophy and Social-Political Science, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași. To examine how the undergraduates perceive distance learning in the context of university closure due to the spread of COVID-19 disease, we organized two „waves" of research by questionnaire: 593 respondents in March 2020 and 499 respondents in June 2020, both samples being representative. This research had four main objectives: (a) studying comparatively the university students opinion about the decision to suspend the traditional face-to-face teaching activities; (b) studying the university students opinion about the online communications with professor or tutors, with their colleagues; (c) studying the main online activities initiated during the pandemic for academic formation; (d) constructing a statistical index of pandemic difficulties for comparative analysis within specific groups of the target population. Some of the conclusions of this study showed that during this semester, marked by pandemic context, the intensity level of the communication process between students and their teachers has increased relatively balanced for all years of study. Also, the online teaching activities carried out at a constant pace respected the pre-pandemic schedule. Thus, the time spent on learning was quite similar compared with the pre-pandemic period.

Height shrinkage, health and mortality among older adults: Evidence from Indonesia

In this paper, we analyze the correlates of height shrinkage and the association of height shrinkage and late-life health among mid-aged and older adults from the Indonesian Family Life Survey. We first document the extent of height shrinkage based on measured height over 17 years. Height shrinkage is higher among older age groups, taller individuals, and women. Socioeconomic and initial health correlates of shrinkage are found to be different for men and women. Higher education, marital status, household consumption, urban birth and poor self-reported health in adulthood and childhood are found to be significant correlates for men. Ethnicity, working in the agricultural sector and availability of local health infrastructure are key correlates of height shrinkage for women. Height shrinkage of 1 cm is associated with a 0.02 s.d. decrease in cognition scores for Indonesian men and a 0.01 s.d. decrease for women, and 4% increase in index of mobility difficulties for both men and women. Extreme height loss, defined as height loss greater than 3 cm is associated with 8–10 percent lower lung function and grip strength among both men and women. Extreme height loss among Indonesian older women is also associated with a 7-percentage-point increase in the likelihood of death in the most recent wave. Our results emphasize the importance of taking into account age related height loss as a significant covariate for health and mortality of older adults, independent of baseline height and health.

Effects of Touch Force Profiles and Waveforms of Electrostatic Tactile Feedback on Touchscreen Pan Operation

Abstract Electrostatic tactile feedback has an important role in improving touchscreen operations and user experience. In this paper, panning performance under different forces and different waveforms were explored using subjective and objective experiments. The effects of electrostatic tactile feedback under one linear force and three non-linear force profiles with the fixed waveform were studied. The results indicated that panning accuracy, efficiency and user experience under exponential force was superior to those under linear, quadratic or logarithmic forces. Second, the effects of four different waveforms under exponential force were studied. Results indicated that panning performance was better with square wave, compared to those with sinusoidal, triangular or sawtooth waves. The relationship between panning time and index of panning difficulties was also explored and found to be in agreement with the Steering law and Meyer’s law, with correlations of 0.9395 and 0.9397, respectively. The results suggest ways for designing touchscreens with tactile feedback that is useful in both research and end-user communities.

Precision-Dependent Changes in Motor Variability During Sustained Bimanual Reaching.

Movement variability of the upper limb was investigated using a bimanual Fitts' task. Participants tapped rhythmically between target-pairs of different index of difficulties for three intervals of 20min each. We studied the effects of index of difficulties and time-on-task on movement time, end-point variability, approximate entropy, and standard deviation of the relative phase. Lower index of difficulties and time-on-task caused decreasing movement time and increasing end-point variability. Moreover, standard deviation of the relative phase and approximate entropy moderately increased. By looking into the long-term effects of a sustained bimanual Fitts' task, this is the first time such movement variability increase is demonstrated in multiple variability indices. The relevance of the findings for future studies on work-related musculoskeletal disorders is being discussed.

Analisis Soal Ulangan Harian pada Materi Perubahan Lingkungan di Kelas X SMA di Kota Padang

One of the causes of student learning outcomes are less is that evaluation tools used are too difficult. This study aims to provide information about the validity, reliability, index of difficulties, and differentiation of the matter of test. The type of this research is descriptive research. Based on the results of the analysis of the validity of the question of daily test of environmental change material, obtained validity value with the criteria of validity is very high, the reliability value with the criteria of reliability is very high, the problem of trouble index analysis there are 6 questions including difficult question, 64 problem including moderate, and 13 problem including easy, with criteria of index of difficulty of problem is on medium criterion, result of different power about 4 problem with bad criterion once, 24 questions with poor criteria, 46 questions with moderate criteria and 9 questions with good criteria. It can be concluded from the result of daily item test analysis on the 1st years senior high school in Padang City Environmental Change material in Padang City Lesson Year 2016/2017 in terms of validity, reliability, difficulty index has show the criteria of a good question, but the question of different potency does not show the criteria of a good question.

INVESTIGATING STUDENTS’ LEARNING DIFFICULTIES IN INTEGRAL CALCULUS

The study aims to investigate the students’ learning difficulties in Integral Calculus, specifically in calculating integrals. The mixed methods research design was employed to gather quantitative data from the students’ answers in the examination and collect qualitative data from them through open-ended interviews and scrutiny of their solutions. Findings of related previous investigations were documented to understand more the nature of the difficulties in the subject as experienced by others. Participants of the study were given the examination in indefinite integrals composed of items that require solely the use of integration formulas and items in which integration techniques should be applied. The quantitative data disclosed, after subjecting the index of difficulties to statistical treatment, that the learners have experienced the same level of difficulties in dealing with the two types of integrals. The qualitative data revealed, as viewed by the participants and as reflected in their solutions, that many of the errors pertain more to the learners’ ability in trigonometric manipulation rather than with the integration per se. It was further concluded as highlighted from previous studies, that the learners’ difficulties in integration are evidently attributed to the inherent mathematical knowledge and skills acquired by the students from basic mathematics. Keywords Indefinite Integral, Integral Calculus, Integration Formula, Integration Technique

Item difficulty analysis of a high-stakes mathematics examination using Rasch analysis: The case of sequences and series

The National Senior Certificate examination is the most important school examination in South Africa. Analysis of learners’ performance in Mathematics in this examination is normally carried out and presented in terms of the percentage of learners who succeeded in the different bands of achievement. In some cases item difficulties are presented – item refers to the subsection of each examination question. Very little attention is paid to other diagnostic statistics, such as the discrimination indices and item difficulties taking into consideration partial scores examinees achieve on items. In this article we report on a study that, in addition to the usual item difficulties, includes a discrimination index of item difficulties taking into account partial scores examinees achieved. The items, considered individually, are analysed in relation to the other items on the test. The focus is on the topic sequences and series and the data were obtained from a stratified sample of the marked scripts of the candidates who wrote the National Senior Certificate examination in Mathematics in November 2010. Rasch procedures were used for the analysis. The findings indicate that learners perform differently on subsections of topics, herein referred to as items, and that focusing on scores for full topics potentially mask these differences. Mathematical explanations are attempted to account for difficulties learners exhibit in these subsections, using a hierarchy of scale. The findings and our analysis indicate that a form of measurement-driven testing could have beneficial results for teaching. Also, for some items the difficulty obtained from the work of examinees runs counter to the commonly perceived wisdom that an examination ought to be structured in such a way that the less difficult items are at the start of a topic. An explanatory device anchored around the construct of ‘familiarity with problem types through repeated productive practice’ is used to account for the manifested hierarchy of difficulty of the items.

Difficulties, coping strategies, satisfaction and burden in informal Portuguese caregivers

To characterise the main difficulties, coping strategies, sources of satisfaction and levels of burden disclosed by informal caregivers of older people who are dependent due to physical and mental causes, in the Portuguese context and to compare the impact between caregivers for older people with physical dependence and caregivers for older people with mental dependence. Caring for a dependent older person is a complex process that puts two people in interaction, each with their own traits and their own histories of private life. When performing this role, the care provider needs to know how to deal with difficulties through a range of coping strategies. The outcome of this relationship may result in burden as a result of the volume of care, the complexity of care or the caregiver's inability to provide needed care. Caring for a family member can also be a source of satisfaction thanks to the pleasure of giving back and/or providing well-being. This is a quantitative, analytical and correlational study. This study was conducted among two distinct groups-caregivers of older people without dementia (physical impairment) and caregivers of patients with dementia (impairment of a predominantly cognitive nature). Data were collected by administering a previously defined questionnaire that sought to gather various sorts of information (sociodemographic, clinical and environmental) and that included certain specific instruments, such as dependency ratio, cognitive assessment tests, an index of difficulties, a satisfaction index, an index of coping strategies and a burden scale. The sample consisted in 184 caregivers over 40years of age, of which, 101 cared for dependent people without cognitive impairment and 83 cared for people with dementia. Most caregivers were women (87%), most were married (78·8%), with a low level of education (33·7% did not complete primary school and only 7·1% had any postsecondary education). Most were spouses or daughters (75·5%). The caregivers of older patients with dementia had lower levels of satisfaction, with a mean difference of 12·95 percentage points, p<0·001. It appears that caring for older people with dementia implies a greater burden, with a mean difference of 15·4 percentage points, p<0·001. There is a strong correlation between difficulties and burden (r=0·89, p<0·001) and between the effectiveness of coping strategies and satisfaction (r=0·92, p<0·001). This study suggests that caregivers of older people with dementia are more vulnerable due to their higher levels of burden, which are associated with higher levels of difficulties and reduced sources of satisfaction. These data are essential for the management and implementation of health programmes that can reduce the vulnerability of caregivers. Programmes should address caregivers' difficulties and burden as a way to promote satisfaction with providing care.

Food craving is associated with multiple weight loss attempts

The aim of the study was to investigate the association between food craving and lifetime number of weight-loss attempts, as a proxy index of difficulties in weight-loss maintenance. The participants were 100 adult out-patients with BMI ≥ 25 admitted at three medical centers for the treatment of obesity and excess weight in Rome (Italy). The patients were administered the State and Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire, trait version (FCQ-T). The patients with five or more weight loss episodes (compared to those with four treatments or less) differed in all the dimensions of the FCQ-T. Food craving is associated with more difficulties in weight-loss maintenance after weight-loss interventions.

Relação velocidade-acurácia em tarefa de contornar figuras geométricas e traçar linhas

Speed-accuracy trade-off was analyzed in two experiments, through Fitts´ law, in tasks simulated by computer. Experiment I analyzed the task of drawing geometric figures (triangle, square, and circle), in which it figure perimeter and line thickness were manipulated, providing index of difficulties (ID) between 1,25 and 2,15 bits. Experiment II analyzed the task of trace lines, in which it line size, line thickness, and line inclination angle (0º, 45º, 90º, 135º, and 180º) were manipulated, providing IDs between 3,5 and 7,5 bits. A linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between movement time (MT) and task’s ID. Determination coefficients higher than 0,9 (R² > 0,9) for the association TM x ID in experiments I and II were verified. Such results provided support for Fitts’ law on the performance of the computer simulated tasks of drawing geometric figures and trace lines.

Division, International Integration, and Economic Development

This paper examines the impact of divisions between nation-states and of international integration on per capita GDP in developing countries. Based on data from the World Bank and using a sample of fifty-nine developing economies, we find that per capita GDP is linearly dependent upon various measures of economic divisions and integration such as the number of countries for which the nationals of a country need a visa, the percentage of foreigners born in a country other than that in which they live (including refugees), the index of shipping difficulties, average tariffs as a percentage of import value, country size, the proportion of the total population living in less than 25kms from a coastline, and trade with neighbouring countries as a proportion of the total trade of the country. The inclusion of interaction variables yields superior results as it takes into account the problem of multicollinearity among some explanatory variables. Statistical results of such empirical examination will assist policy makers in those countries identify areas the budgets for which need to be reallocated in order to stimulate economic development.

COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL ABILITIES OF CHILDREN WITH HIV INFECTION IN GREECE

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to evaluate cognitive and behavioral abilities of HIV-positive children in Greece. METHODS: The cognitive and behavioral abilities of 20 HIV-positive children (B and C status; 8 boys and 12 girls; aged 3–18 years [mean: 11.5 years]) who were vertically infected and were receiving antiretroviral treatment were assessed twice within a 7-year period. Clinical indices (CD4 lymphocyte and viral load counts) were monitored systematically. A detailed developmental assessment was performed for all children twice within a 7-year period. Cognitive abilities were assessed by using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III and Griffiths Mental Abilities Scales. Behavioral abilities were assessed by using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, which provides individual scores for anxiety, emotional tension, conduct, hyperactivity, and social relations with peers and provides an overall index of behavioral difficulties (IBD). Detailed neurologic examination and brain imaging were performed for all children. RESULTS: HIV encephalopathy was evident in 3 children, and 5 of 20 children presented with coexisting diseases (2 neurofibromatosis encephalopathy, 1 brain aneurysm, and 2 autistic disorders). HIV-positive children with normal MRI findings and without signs of HIV encephalopathy scored within the normal range for their chronological age in all measures of general and specific domain cognitive abilities. Low IQ scores showed in 15 of 20 HIV-positive children in both assessments. Factors that were associated consistently with lower scores were positive MRI results, coexistence of an organic disease, maternal education, and gender. The IBD was raised in 7 children. In detail, 9 children had raised IBD scores in emotional tension, 6 seemed to have conduct disorders, 5 had hyperactivity, and 11 presented as having difficulties in social relations with their peers. Factors that were associated significantly and consistently with abnormal IBD scores were lower IQ, positive MRI findings, and coexistence of an organic disease. CONCLUSIONS: Although the sample was small, the findings of our study support the idea that HIV infection places children at increased risk for poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes only if they experience a severe illness of advancing disease stage or a coexisting disease.

Reception class predictors of literacy skills

In the last decade, there has been a growing interest, both in the UK and abroad, in developing early screening tests for dyslexia that can be used with very young children. In addition to measures of literacy achievement, such screening tests typically aim to identify underlying difficulties, such as phonological deficits, that might hinder a child's educational progress. The Dyslexia Early Screening Test (DEST; Nicolson & Fawcett, 1996) is an example of such a test that combines attainment and diagnostic indicators. The study reported assessed the ability of the DEST to predict future literacy skills in contrast with the prediction afforded by school-based measures, such as letter knowledge. Participants were 45 boys attending a reception class, with a mean age of 4.87 years at the start of the study and 6.63 years at the end. Measures of literacy skills, phonological awareness, verbal memory, motor skill, and auditory processing were assessed using the DEST as the initial screening tool at Phase 1. Measures of letter knowledge, non-word reading, and rhyme judgment were taken at Phase 2. Phase 3 measures, 14 months after the start of the study, comprised single-word reading and spelling. At Phase 4, some 22 months after the beginning of the study, measures of reading and spelling ability were assessed again. Individual subtests of the DEST were more predictive of later literacy skills than the global screening test's score (the 'at risk quotient'). Better predictors were the DEST subtest of sound order and rapid automatized naming, together with the school attainment measure of letter knowledge. Although some DEST subtests did offer predictors of future literacy skills, school-based measures of letter knowledge may be equally valid as assessment measures. Additionally, the results question the usefulness of combining measures to form an 'at risk' index of future literacy difficulties, particularly in the age range assessed.

Use of the EQ-5D among patients suffering from dementia

Background and objective This study was designed to determine the acceptability, feasibility, reliability, and validity of the French version of EQ-5D measuring HRQol in subjects with dementia. Methods EQ-5D was administered to 142 subjects. The feasibility and acceptability were determined by the refusal rate, the type of administration, and the percentage and distribution of missing data. Test-retest reliability was studied by kappa coefficients and validity by agreement between subjects' and proxies' assessments. Results The response rate was satisfactory. The instrument discriminated well among the subjects. Test-retest reliability was average. The validity was poor if we consider the agreement between patients' and caregivers' reports, but other criteria of validity produced better results. Subjects' responses on each dimension were related with their global judgment of health in the expected direction. Significant relations were found between the Katz index of ADL and self-rated difficulties only for expected dimensions. Relations with age and with gender were in line with expectations. Conclusion Results led to consider that patients' responses are not entirely devoid of judgment. It seems that dementia patients are capable of expressing their health-related quality of life through a brief instrument as the EQ-5D.

Written Language as a Window in to Residual Language Deficits: A Study of Children With Persistent and Residual Speech and Language Impairments

Previous work has suggested that, because writing is a late-acquired and complex skill, it may be a particularly sensitive index of language difficulties in children. Evidence in support of this view was obtained in a study contrasting 161 normally-developing control children aged from 7.5 to 13 years with 75 twin children of the same age who either had specific speech-language impairments, or were co-twins of affected children. Written narratives were elicited from children using a sequence of five photographs depicting a simple story, and were analysed for grammatical complexity and accuracy, intelligibility, and semantic content. Only 42 of the twins could spell well enough to attempt the narrative task. Some co-twins of affected children had deficits in written language, despite normal performance on oral language tests. Most children with language impairments were poor at writing, with particularly marked deficits on a measure of spelling and punctuation. Children with language impairments made a relatively high proportion of phonologically inaccurate spelling errors when compared with younger children at a similar vocabulary level. Those who did poorly on a nonword repetition test were especially likely to have poor written language. However, four children with pure speech difficulties produced age-appropriate written narratives.

Glucoregulatory disorders in school refusal students

Our previous studies demonstrated autonomic nervous system disorders and cerebral blood hypoperfusion in school refusal students with underlying emotional distress due to fear or anxiety associated with school attendance. Because severe stress is known to affect glucoregulatory metabolism, this study used the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to measure glucose metabolism in school refusal students. A three-hour OGTT was performed. In preparation for the test, students fasted overnight. After a fasting blood sample was drawn, students were given solutions containing a predetermined amount of glucose based on their body weight (1.75 g/kg to a maximum 75 g). After glucose ingestion, blood samples were drawn at 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 mm to measure blood glucose (BG), immunoreactive insulin (IRI), pancreatic glucagon (IRG) and growth hormone (GH) levels. BG levels, IRI response, cumulative BG (sigma BG), cumulative IRI (sigma IRI), insulin/glucose ratio (delta IRI/delta BG), and insulinogenic index (sigma IRI/sigma BG) were then compared to previously reported normal control data. As an index of emotional difficulties, the self-rating depressive scale (SDS) was carried out. Eighty-one school refusal students (40 males and 41 females), 11-19 years of age (14.8 +/- 2.1), were studied. Their school refusal periods ranged from one month to eight years. All students were within -15 to +20% (-0.04 +/- 8.6) of ideal body weight. BG levels were determined using a glucose oxidase reaction method. Serum hormones were measured by radioimmunoassay. BG levels at all OGTT time intervals and sigma BG were significantly higher in school refusal students than the normal control data (sigma BG: 39.5 +/- 4.4 vs 33.3 +/- 3.4 mmol/l P < 0.001). Although the insulin response was abnormally low relative to the prevailing hyperglycaemia (sigma IRI/ sigma BG: subjects vs control = 232 +/- 129 vs 375 +/- 271, P < 0.01), normal beta cell secretory ability was speculated (sigma IRI: subjects vs controls = 2805 +/- 1274 vs 2523 +/- 1219 pmol/l). This suggests a relative suppression of insulin secretion. A paradoxical increase of GH was observed in 19 students after glucose ingestion. Glucoregulatory disorders observed in school refusal students may be caused by emotional distress. Multiple factors including autonomic nervous system disorders, derangement of neuropeptides in the hypothalamus, and hormonal imbalances may also affect glucoregulatory metabolism, predisposing these students to hyperglycaemia. We speculate that the glucoregulatory system compensates for decreased blood flow to the brain by increasing blood glucose concentrations, thereby providing sufficient glucose as the primary energy source used during normal brain metabolism.