Independent States Research Articles

Security-Diplomacy Nexus: Nature of Bilateral Cooperation in Kenya - India Military Diplomatic Relations Since 1963

Bilateral and multilateral agreements have been one of the mechanisms through which growth and development have taken place. The newly created independent states of the Cold War period presented a major paradigm shift in international cooperation to include military diplomacy. Kenya and India being among these newly created states have had their cooperation where by the two countries have used their good diplomatic relations to bolster one another's military capabilities. The current study sought to put into perspective the conduct of bilateral relations between Kenya and India. The objective of this study was to examine the nature of bilateral cooperation in enhancing Kenya-India military-diplomatic relations since 1963. The study was anchored on power theory. The study adopted a descriptive research design. The study was carried out in Nairobi County, Kenya with a specific focus on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Defence Ministry, and Indian High Commission. The target population was 2500. The sample size for the study was determined using Yamane's (1967) formula to calculate the sample size, which was 250 Qualitative data obtained from interviews were analysed using narrative reports using thematic techniques. Quantitative data from the questionnaires was edited, coded, and entered into a computer spreadsheet in a standard format to allow descriptive statistics analysis. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) edition 24 and Microsoft Office Excel 2013 were used for the quantitative data. The findings of the study revealed that the nature of Kenya-India military diplomatic relations manifested in various forms including through High-profile visits by Kenyan and Indian officials to both states as a way of strengthening bilateral relations. Technological transfer was another way through which these two nations shaped their diplomatic relationship, particularly in information and communication technology (ICT). Additionally, Defense trade and trade agreements, Security Partnerships, Counterterrorism activities, Maritime Safety, and Peacekeeping missions were common areas of cooperation between Kenya and India. The study concludes that bilateral cooperation between Kenya and India has been instrumental in enhancing their military-diplomatic relations since 1963. The study recommends that, to better understand the nature of bilateral cooperation, Kenya and India should establish a permanent joint military commission to oversee and coordinate defense initiatives.

Relations Between the Holy See and Lithuania: a 100-Year History

The Article provides the analysis of the relations of the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania from the beginning of the State’s independence until the current period. At the outset, the authors give an overview of different stages and key legal issues of the development of the said relations. Further, the research deals with typical provisions and specific features of a concordat as an international agreement. The following part of the article is devoted to the analysis of the provisions of current four agreements between the Holy See and Lithuania, adding comparison with the treaties concluded by the Holy See with other two Baltic States, namely Latvia and Estonia. The research focuses on key legal issues of the cooperation between the Holy See and Lithuania with minor aspects of the intersection of the historical, political, international, and religious context. The authors conclude that in the complex international political landscape, the Holy See has remained one of the most credible partners for Lithuania and a moral authority for the nation, dominated by Catholics. The recognition of Lithuania as a State shortly after its Independence Declaration of 1918 as well as non-recognition of its 50-year occupation significantly contributed to the restoration of the State’s independence in 1990. Although the reestablishment of the independent State of Lithuania being based on the continuation of the State’s identity opened door for securing the validity of the Concordat concluded by the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania in 1927, it was no longer capable of reflecting new realities, and new fundamental changes required the conclusion of new treaties between the parties. In 2000, the Agreement concerning Juridical Aspects of the Relations between the Catholic Church and the State, the Agreement on Cooperation in Education and Culture, and the Agreement concerning the Pastoral Care of Catholics Serving in the Army were concluded between the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania, while in 2012, the Agreement on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education occurred. These bilateral agreements reflect typical provisions of concordats arising from their unique nature of combining both political (legal) and ecclesiastical matters and securing autonomy of both parties: they regulate the legal status of the Catholic Church and numerous issues, encompassing institutional matters, religious freedom, religious education, family life, cultural heritage, pastoral care, and many others. These provisions are also similar in the agreements concluded by the Holy See and other two Baltic States, all having no state religion. However, the treaties of the Holy See concluded with Lithuania and Latvia have more common and more elaborated provisions than the agreement with Estonia, while some issues are relevant and, therefore, regulated in respect of merely a particular state.

The Conflicting Categorization of Kings and Chiefs in Ghana

This article aims to explore the historical development and contemporary role of the chieftaincy institution in Ghana, highlighting its enduring significance and adaptability. The institution of chieftaincy has been with the people of Ghana for centuries. Chiefs, now known as traditional rulers, are distinct from political rulers. The laws of Ghana require chiefs to maintain neutrality by forbidding their engagement in active politics. Chiefs are royals who have been validly nominated, elected, or selected by their respective kingmakers to be enstooled or enskinned according to the relevant customary law and usage. When Europeans came to Africa to trade, chiefs governed independent states, each with its own laws, courts, police, and military. The chieftaincy institution is organized hierarchically, ranging from the lowest rank to the apex, and among the Asantes, the Asantehene is the apex. Before 1901, when the British colonized the Asantes, the Asantehene served as the political, executive, and legislative head of the people of the Asante Kingdom. The Asante Kingdom covers the Ashanti Region, Ahafo Region, parts of the Bono and Bono East Regions, and a paramountcy each in Ghana’s Eastern and Oti Regions. The traditional capital of the Asante Kingdom, Kumasi, was initially at Kwaman. In the 1670s, Chief Osei Tutu from the Oyoko Abohyen Dynasty became the chief of Kwaman after succeeding his late uncle Nana Obiri Yeboah, who reigned from 1640 to 1680 and united all the Asante chiefdoms, which were independent and had their political autonomy. The occupants of the Golden Stool are designated as kings and have held the title to this day. Although the British succeeded in changing the name of some kings to paramount chiefs, they failed to change the name of the royals responsible for the nomination, election or selection of a person to be enstooled or installed as an Asantehene, paramount chief or chief, who are still called the kingmakers. Keywords: Asante Kingdom; Asantehene; enstooled; fetish-priest; Gold Coast; golden stool; kingmakers; Oyoko clan; paramount chief; traditional ruler.

Revolts and the Persian Great Kings: Active Involvement or Careful Abstention?

Summary Revolts against the Persian Great Kings remain a largely contentious issue in Achaemenid studies, several aspects of which are however left unexplored. One such example is the question of the role of the Persian sovereign himself in this conflict: Was he actively implicated or did he adopt a more passive stance? This study aims to provide an answer to this question by systematically examining in a chronological order all the attested rebellions that have broken out in opposition to the incumbent Persian sovereign. Although on the surface level the attitude of the Achaemenid monarchs greatly varied, through this study a more coherent picture emerges, as it gradually becomes clear that the policy of the Persian sovereigns when facing an internal threat to their authority depended on the objective of the rebel themselves: Secession from the empire and the formation of an independent state or usurpation of the imperial throne.

From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries

The decline of the Mongol Empire and its successor states led to anarchy in Central Eurasia from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This era saw the fall of the Timurids and the Ming Dynasty and the rise of new regional powers, including the Kazakhs and Zunggars in Central Asia. Externally, the Manchus, and Russia began influencing Central Asian geopolitics. Meanwhile, significant political, cultural, and scientific developments were taking place in Europe, alongside the rise of colonialism. Although these trends in Europe began to affect Central Asia, the regional powers of the time focused more on European technological innovations than on ideas of sovereignty and statehood. With the acceleration of political and culturalinteractions between the East and the West, mapping and related innovations reached Central Asia and soon became symbols of political hegemony. This strategy, adopted by China’s Ming and Manchu Qing dynasties and Russia, was efficiently utilized in the struggle for dominance in Central Asia. This article examines the last attempts of the regional Kazakh and Zunggar polities as independent states to become the hegemon power in the region within the framework of the role of mapping in Russian and Manchu colonial advances, which has not been sufficiently studied yet. Adopting an interdisciplinary approach, this study employs historical methodologies, as well as international relations terminologies and theoretical frameworks.

The Phenomenon of Model Legislative Acts of the Interparliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States in Decisions of Courts of the Russian Federation

This study is focused at studying decisions of courts of the Russian Federation, containing references to model legislative acts and other documents of the Interparliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States (hereinafter referred to as the IPA CIS).Aim. Determine the types of appeals by courts of the Russian Federation to the texts of the recommendatory acts of the IPA CIS, adopted for the purpose of forming and implementing coordinated legislative activity on issues of common interest to the member states of the organization.Tasks. Collect and study acts of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, as well as the system of federal courts of general jurisdiction and arbitration courts headed by it.Methods. The disclosure of the main trends in the courts’ resort to model laws and other documents of the CIS IPA occurred according to the following criteria: level and type of court that adopted the decision; the entity on whose initiative the appeal to the model act of the CIS IPA took place, as well as the consequences of the initiative on the part of the applicant or other participant in the process; the meaning (variant of manifestation) of the model document in the court ruling.Results. The study showed that courts at all levels of the judicial system of the Russian adopted decrees, rulings and decisions adopted in constitutional, civil, criminal and administrative proceedings, the content of which included references to model legal provisions. The initiative to use model legal norms came both from the court and from other participants in the process.Conclusion. The court decisions collected for the study presented different options for the use of model laws and other documents of the CIS IPA by courts, which provides grounds for redetermination of the nature of model legislative acts of the CIS IPA.

Comparative Analysis of the Economies of Türkiye and Uzbekistan

The independence of the Central Asian republic of Uzbekistan, described as the Turkic Republic, has added a new dimension to Turkish foreign policy. In this context, relations and cooperation between Turkey and Uzbekistan, where common language, history and cultural ties are shared, have developed rapidly in many areas due to common interests. Turkey's policy towards Uzbekistan is to support the country's continued existence as an independent state that has political and economic stability, is integrated with the international community, and internalizes democratic values. As a matter of fact, Turkey has clearly implemented its strategy and policy on this issue by immediately recognizing Uzbekistan's independence and providing economic support to the country. In this direction, Turkey supports the country with training programs, projects and technical assistance, especially through the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TIKA). In line with this basic strategy, in this study, Uzbekistan and Turkey are evaluated from an economic and sociopolitical perspective and how each country's special location and geopolitical position shapes the strategies they follow.

Sampling random graphs with specified degree sequences

The configuration model is a standard tool for uniformly generating random graphs with a specified degree sequence, and is often used as a null model to evaluate how much of an observed network’s structure can be explained by its degree structure alone. A Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm, based on a degree-preserving double-edge swap, provides an asymptotic solution to sample from the configuration model. However, accurately and efficiently detecting when this Markov chain is sufficiently close to its stationary distribution remains an unsolved problem. Here, we provide a solution to sample from the configuration model using this standard MCMC algorithm. We develop an algorithm, based on the assortativity of the sampled graphs, for estimating the gap between effectively independent MCMC states, and a computationally efficient gap-estimation heuristic derived from analyzing a corpus of 509 empirical networks. We provide a convergence detection method based on the Dickey-Fuller Generalized Least Squares test, which we show is more accurate and efficient than three alternative Markov chain convergence tests. Supplementary materials for the proposed methods can be found here.

The Project of Circassian Return to the Caucasus in the Agenda of Circassian Organisations in Russia and the Diaspora

This study examines the evolution of the Circassian ethno-national movement, one of the most prominent in Russia, and its connection to the Adyghe diaspora communities in Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Western Europe, and the United States. In the 1990s, Circassian nationalists proposed the creation of a unified Circassia, either as part of Russia or as an independent state. However, these radical proposals were largely rejected by moderate Adyghe. In response, Circassian activists sought a unifying project for the Adyghe both within Russia and across the diaspora, leading to the promotion of repatriation to the North Caucasus. This agenda, which had long been central to the Circassian movement, gained new importance following the failure to establish a united Circassia and the onset of the Syrian crisis, which forced many Circassians to flee. The study analyzes how Circassian organizations in Russia and abroad have utilized the repatriation initiative to address their challenges, highlighting a shift in the movement. Among Russian Adyghe, radicalism is declining, with growing interest in constructive dialogue with the state in exchange for support in managed resettlement. In contrast, Turkish Circassian organizations do not advocate for repatriation, as it could undermine the Circassian movement in Turkey.

Politico-Administrative Culture and Public Service Reform in Post-Independence Kazakhstan

Classical organizational management literature draws clear parallels between organizational culture and climate and effective use of power and influence as key to successful policy implementation of reforms in public sector organizations. On the other hand, the public policy literature, in particular, policy transfer as a strand within policy studies, emphasizes the role of the national context, more specifically, ‘facilitators’ and ‘constraints’ of ‘‘politico-administrative culture” within the national context, as crucial to understanding processes of transfer, convergence, and diffusion of public policy. There is a plethora of studies by Western scholars of public management who have successfully utilized these theoretical underpinnings to study the effectiveness of public service reforms in mature policy environments such as the UK, the US, Australia, New Zealand, and others. However, the public policy and comparative public management literature only offers a limited number of case studies from developing, middle-/upper-middle countries, which rely on concepts of organizational management in addition to narratives on the impact of policy learning from global doctrines, such as Weberianism, New Public Management (NPM), and New Public Governance (NPG), and national politics, on the implementation of administrative reforms in those contexts. Kazakhstan, as a resource-affluent post-Soviet country and a bastion of modernization and ‘open government’ in Central Asia or the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in the post-Soviet era is a case in point. Based on ethnographic research consisting of interviews with elite academics, civil servants, and think-tank activists, as well as reviews of OECD and government strategy reports in Astana, the findings point to a potential abatement of the impact of context constraints such as large power distance and collectivist behavior by context facilitators such as those surrounding the use of ‘trilingualism’ and public diplomacy towards reforms in Kazakhstan particularly in recent years.

AZERBAIJAN'S NATIONAL SECURITY POLICY IN THE SYSTEM OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

With the end of the Cold War, the political situation in the world has changed dramatically. The emergence on the world stage of new independent states, non-governmental organizations, transnational companies and threatening the world at the regional and global levels, such as ethnic conflicts, the spread of political and economic instability, imbalance, weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, the struggle for natural resources, etc. contributed to the transformation of international relations. As a result of the process, also accelerated by globalization, the state’s perception of security has changed in parallel with the increase in the types and scale of risks and threats.

Reconstruction of the Position and Authority of the Honorary Council of General Election Organizers (DKPP) as a QuasiEthical Court of Election Organizers

The Honorary Council of Election Organizers (DKPP) is an institution responsible for resolving ethical violations committed by election organizers, established under the law as part of Indonesia’s election system. As a state institution, the DKPP holds the authority to examine, summon, sanction, and adjudicate such violations through a court-like process, which includes witness examination, expert testimony, verification of evidence, and the issuance of rulings. Notably, DKPP decisions are final and materially binding. The quasi-judicial nature of its proceedings, combined with the finality of its decisions, places the DKPP in a unique legal position, often referred to as a "quasi-public court." In the Constitutional Court's interpretation, the DKPP functions as an integral part of the election administration alongside the General Election Commission (KPU) and the Election Supervisory Body (Bawaslu), forming a comprehensive election organizing body. This study explores the legal status and authority of the DKPP, particularly in its role as a quasi-public court. Through normative legal research with a descriptive and prescriptive approach, using legislative, conceptual, historical, and comparative methods, the study concludes that the DKPP, as an independent auxiliary state organ, functions similarly to a general court in enforcing the code of ethics for election organizers. The final and binding nature of its decisions has significant legal implications, reinforcing the DKPP's role in maintaining electoral integrity within Indonesia’s constitutional framework.

Progress of nations in the organisation of, and structures for, kidney care delivery between 2019 and 2023: cross sectional survey in 148 countries

ObjectiveTo assess changes in key measures of kidney care using data reported in 2019 and 2023.DesignCross sectional survey in 148 countries.SettingSurveys from International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas...

The Law of Nations in the Diplomacy of the American Revolution

Abstract Historians have long known that leaders of the American Revolution looked to the law of nations for insight into the rights and obligations of independent states. In so doing, Americans relied largely on the writings of European legal theorists, such as Hugo Grotius and Emerich de Vattel, whose treatises on the law of nations are regarded today as having laid the foundations of international law. As this article demonstrates, however, early modern statesmen did not base their conduct on such treatises, but on a customary law of nations that they derived from precedent and the text of earlier treaties. This article elucidates the distinction between the customary and theoretical branches of the law of nations. It then goes on to examine the law of nations’ impact on revolutionary-era diplomacy, drawing particular attention to a series of wartime negotiations over rights to the Mississippi River. As the article shows, most American emissaries lacked experience with the customary laws of diplomacy and struggled to use that law effectively in their negotiations. The most serious consequences were averted due in part to French legal advice, and because one American, John Jay, acquired enough competence in customary law to guide his colleagues toward an effective negotiation of peace.

The State and Trends of Crime in the Territory of the Member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States in 2023

Introduction. The article provides an analysis of the state of crime in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States in 2023. The analysis is based on statistical data on the state of crime in the Commonwealth over the past five years.After Russia launched a special military operation in 2022 to denazify and demilitarize Ukraine, a situation is developing in the world in which the countries of the collective West are trying to damage our country through economic sanctions, as well as actually waging a proxy war against Russia. Unfriendly countries, led by the United States, are trying to use the member states of the Commonwealth as a tool in the fight against Russia, through unequal cooperation to introduce differences in the CIS, and use information security technologies for their own purposes.To determine the degree of influence of current world events on the criminal situation in the post-Soviet space, an analysis of the state of crime in the CIS countries was carried out.The given statistical data on crime in the Commonwealth countries demonstrate the dynamics of the criminal situation in the countries under consideration, depending primarily on internal criminogenic factors. Such factors exist and develop under the influence of criminal elements and the existing criminal environment.The analysis of the dynamics of the criminal situation for 2019-2023 was aimed at determining the trends of its development in the light of the impact of external and internal processes that have arisen in recent years, to identify the causes affecting the dynamics of certain types of crime and to make a forecast of the possible development of the criminal situation for the next 1-2 years.To predict the dynamics of the criminal situation in the CIS countries, the expotential smoothing method was used, which is illustrated by the graphs given in the article.Materials and methods. The theoretical basis of the research is based on the conclusions and achievements of criminology, scientific research on crime as a social phenomenon. The reasons and events influencing the dynamics of crime are taken into account. General scientific and private scientific research methods (synthesis, deduction, analysis, generalization, observation, etc.) were used in the work. The methodological basis of the study was a systematic approach, comparative and problem-based approaches.The results of the study. As a result of the analysis of the criminal situation at the transport facilities of the Russian Federation, it was found that, starting in 2020, new factors influenced the quantitative indicators of crime in transport. The introduction of restrictive measures related to the spread of coronavirus infection, their subsequent cancellation, the beginning of the geopolitical crisis in the world, provoked by the imposition of sanctions by Western countries against Russia, restrictions on international communications. closure of airports, borders, etc. they affected the directions of preventive activities of the internal affairs bodies in transport. The conclusions and forecasts made in the article determine the trends in the development of the criminal situation in transport in 2023 and allow us to determine the most important vectors of the direction of preventive activities of internal affairs bodies.Discussion and conclusion. The article identifies and substantiates the priority areas of activity of the internal affairs bodies of Russia in transport for the most effective organization of preventive activities and combating crime.

Lessons In Nuclear Disarmament: Constructive Intervention In Ukraine

This paper examines the effect of Constructive Intervention on Ukraine’s decision to relinquish the nuclear weapons left in its possession after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Constructive Intervention is conducted by international organizations and involves capacity building and socialization of newly independent or post crisis states. The aim of Constructive Intervention is to familiarize states with international law, Western practices and norms, and integrate the state with the international community. The extended Constructive Intervention that took place in Ukraine facilitated its decision to relinquish the nuclear weapons.

Introducing the comparative semi-presidential database (CSPD)

AbstractIn this article, we introduce a new dataset—the Comparative Semi-Presidential Database (CSPD)—covering classifications of semi-presidential regimes. In contrast to other databases, the CSPD offers several classifications based on different definitions of semi-presidential regimes along with subtypes of semi-presidential regimes. We use definitions developed by Elgie (in: Elgie (ed) Semi-presidentialism in Europe, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999), Cheibub et al. (Public Choice 143:67–101, 2010), Shugart (French Politics 3(3):323–351, 2005) and Shugart and Carey (Presidents and assemblies: constitutional design and electoral dynamics, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1992). Additionally, we present a modified definition of semi-presidential regimes based on the conceptual discussion in the field. The database covers all independent states from 1900 to 2021. Using empirical analyses, we compare the classifications, the importance of conceptualisation and presenting our measurement for semi-presidential regimes.

ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION DEMAND FOR MEDICAL SERVICES ABROAD IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2018-2023)

The authors analyzed information of the demand for treatment abroad in search engines Yandex and Google the Russian audience of Internet users over the period from 2018 to 2023, covering the 3 stages of the development of international medical tourism market: before pandemia (2018-2019), pandemia (2020-2021) and sanctions (2022-2023). Based on dynamic indicators, a forecast is given for strengthening the positions of individual countries in the information Internet space of the Russian medical tourism market, and the main directions of integration processes in the medical tourism market in the space of the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States are outlined.

Alice Seeley Harris: Bringing Horror To Life In Images

This text looks at how, with a camera and her proximity to the population, one woman was able to make a crucial contribution to denouncing the atrocities committed in the Independent State of Congo. She succeeded in humanizing the written word, and better still, putting faces and stories to these crimes. These actions led to a strong international mobilization, culminating in the recapture of the Congo by Belgium. This text also discusses the role of the Congolese resistance, whose actions also contributed to this movement of denunciation. Methods: In this research we used a qualitative methodological approach based on documentary analysis, these methods was very useful to us. Conclusion: We conclude this contribution by insisting on the fact that the atrocities that took place in the Congo during the EIC are a human tragedy on a massive scale that can be qualified as genocide. The actions that led to the denunciation of these acts must not be forgotten, and must be revisited. The people who participated in these denunciations also deserve to be known. A woman who, at the end of the 19th century, took up her camera and decided to document crimes, not without risk, deserves not to be forgotten by history. Alice Seeley Harris, through her actions, remains an enduring part of the history of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The fact that these accounts and photographs mention the Congolese who came to her to denounce the crimes of which they were victims, so that she could document them, proves that the history of violence in the Congo is still an open field of research in many respects

An Analysis of US-Israel Relations: Impact on Palestine

This research paper focused on the relationship between Israel and the United States of America. The United States and Israel have a unique relationship, something that might not be found within any bilateral relations. The Israelis and Americans have always supported each other in every field and avenue, from foreign policy to economic policy, etc. How this relation affects the Palestinian people and their cause to achieve a separate homeland needs to be discussed. The economic repercussions that the Palestinians face from the US-Israel relations shall also be discussed. Israel does not wish to see Palestine become an independent state, while on the other hand, the Americans have expressed their desire for a two-state solution, which would ensure stability in the region and less hostility towards Israel. The researchers have also employed different theoretical frameworks to better get an understanding of the conflict.