Main Clause Research Articles

ON STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES OF HETEROGENEOUS SUBORDINATION WITH A CAUSAL COMPONENT IN THE SCIENTIFIC STYLE OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE (based on mathematical texts)

All works of scientific style, in particular, in the style of exact sciences, contain a large number of complex sentences. Many of them are multi-component. Of particular interest for the study are the constructions of heterogeneous subordination. They have large “pictorial” means, making it possible to convey the author’s complicated thought in a form that is easy enough for perception. The complex structure breaks down into separate components, allowing the reader to follow the course of logical reasoning, which is of key importance when reading and thinking about sophisticated mathematised texts. However, it would be a mistake to imagine the studied constructions as simply separate predicative parts composed with each other. A complex sentence, built from many components, is a complex “organism” with its own syntactic relations, with a common modality and a predominant connection of structural parts. The subject of this article is constructions consisting of only three components – the main part, the causal subordinate clause and the subordinate clause of the indivisible type. In the style of exact sciences, the causal component makes it possible to clearly establish the cause-and-effect relationship between phenomena, and the entire structure promotes an adequate understanding of complex scientific thought, focusing the reader’s attention on the important points of the presentation of the material. The study was conducted on a number of works by famous modern mathematicians. Their books and textbooks are written in classical mathematical language and are deservedly popular with students and young scientists. In the studied constructions, the causal component can be combined with the component of the indivisible type in different ways. Almost always, the causal component precedes the subordinate clause of the indivisible type and is joined by the conjunctions as and since. When a pronominal-conjunctional correlative subordinate clause acts as a component of the indivisible type, the causal meaning of the entire construction is significantly enhanced. Explanatory and substantive-attributive subordinate clauses lose their independence and are strongly united with the main one in structure and meaning. The construction of the studied constructions turns out to be harmonious: the theme-rheme division of a sentence almost always corresponds to the division of the construction into a subordinate causal clause and a complex main clause. This helps the reader correctly determine the vector of movement of the author’s thought.

Tracce d’uso del pronome dimostrativo espletivo nelle varietà d’italiano vernacolare fiorentino e pistoiese

This research into the expletive demonstrative pronouns consists of a comparison between the varieties of Italian language in Florence and Pistoia and the dialect of Salerno. The linguistic analysis points out the use of this pronouns like extra-phrasal elements with explicative semantic function. They are used only during the conversations, but not in the monologues. unlike the expletive pronouns in the non-pro-drop languages like English, French and Northern Italian dialects, in which these pronouns are expressed in both situations. The form quello, I have observed in the varieties of Italian Language of Florence and Pistoia, as well as chello/chillo I have observed in the dialectal variety of Salerno, correspond to the expressions il fatto è che.../sta di fatto che… In italian language spoken in Florence and Pistoia the expletive demonstrative pronoun quello is exclusively used in the initial position of the main clauses, otherwise in the dialect of Salerno it can occur also in the causal, temporal and completive clauses, in which the expletive demonstrative pronouns occupy the subject (or topic) position between the complementizer and the verb and they are used with explicative semantic function and their use is optional and limited to the conversation.

COGNITIVE PROCESS IN COMPREHENSION OF SENTENCE PROPOSITIONS AMONG THE UNDERGRADUATE EFL STUDENTS

English acquired by EFL learners is categorized as interlanguage, which means that their English is developing towards native like competence. In Indonesian context, the EFL learners’ vocabulary and sentence structure mastery is insufficient. Comprehending main propositions or sentence meanings require cognitive process of both semantic and structural construction. Within such insufficient mastery of English, the researchers intend to uncover the cognitive process EFL learners applied to comprehend main propositions of complex sentences. For this purpose of the study, the researches obtained the main propositions that the learners comprehended from three complex sentences assigned to them to read. Soon after completing the comprehension, the learners were assigned to write their retrospective introspection (mental process they were experiencing during the comprehension). The two types of data were analyzed qualitatively. The research findings show that 65.24% of the EFL learners applied semantic construction, 25.24% used discourse analysis, and 9.52% applied syntactical construction. This indicated that in comprehending sentence meaning, 90.48% EFL learners relied more on words and discourse meanings rather than on sentence structure or on their combination.

Chartalism in Ancient China: A Retrospective of Monetary Thought

Abstract Chartalism is an influential and continuous tradition of monetary thought in ancient China. It dates back to the earliest Chinese text on monetary thought and continued into the Qing Dynasty. A vast body of related literature can be found across ancient Chinese dynasties. Chartalism in ancient China had the following main propositions. First, money originated as an invention of ancient monarchs and is a creature of the state. The second is the nominal theory of money: useless metal can function as money and become a tool of state intervention in the economy through state support. Third, the right to issue money should be monopolized by the state; otherwise, the state's monetary policy will be interfered with by other currencies. Fourth, an important monetary policy is the government's buying and selling of commodities countercyclically by issuing and receiving money, thus stabilizing prices. Fifth, the circulation process of sovereign money consists of two parts: the state's minting of coins (or issuing of paper money) and spending are the outflow of money, and levying monetary taxes (or selling goods) is the inflow of money. The state stabilizes the value of money by intervening in the circulation process.

Exploring the Construction of Angela Merkel's Identity by Global Print Media across International Platforms

This study is an attempt to observe and analyze the intricate operations of media discourses in the identity construction of “world leader” i.e. Angela Merkel. It highlights that how through the explicit and implicit discourse layers’ construction, the macro and micro semantic structures are created in a newspaper, for portraying the desired positive or negative image of a world leader. The theoretical framework has been structured over the basics of the Van Dijk’s (1980) The Theory of Semantic Macrostructures. The macro- level analysis focuses the core themes and main propositions publicized in the selected data. The micro-level analysis concentrates on the lexicalization and syntactic patterns employed by media experts in creating the larger positive image as world leader through smaller level discourse language constructions, focusing her social and political posterities. Furthermore, the study highlights the gradually constructed personal, social and political identities’ portrayal of Angela Merkel as a powerful world leader, through the world newspaper articles discourse and discursive practices.

A completive adverbial as a subordinator sequencing two (sub)events: TSIT-E in Taiwanese Southern Min

As a completive adverbial meaning ‘in a short time’, the Taiwanese Southern Min (TSM) ts̍ıt ‘one’ plus the verbal classifier ē sequence can be used in a preverbal but post-subject position to encode clausal dependency. This usage of ts̍ıt-ē is often translated as ‘immediately after’ or ‘as soon as’. While Adverbial ts̍ıt-ē(-á) (ts̍ıt-ē + the delimitative suffix -á) and tsin kín ‘very quickly’ in the sentence-initial position of an independent sentence establish backward linking with the preceding sentence, the subordinator ts̍ıt-ē regulates forward linking of two successive (sub)events. As a completive adverbial, the subordinator ts̍ıt-ē is subject to the telicity requirement, and it also encodes a speaker’s subjective evaluation that marks (un)expectedness. The low attachment of the subordinator ts̍ıt-ē in the subordinate clause accounts for the asymmetries observed in the three environments for how the telicity requirement is satisfied (e.g., whether completion or inchoativity has to be overtly marked): (a) an independent sentence with completive ts̍ıt-ē(-á), (b) a SUB ts̍ıt-ē clause, and (c) the main clause following a SUB ts̍ıt-ē clause. Finally, the fact that a SUB ts̍ıt-ē clause can only precede the main clause, and must be lower than a reason clause calls for further investigation.

At the Edge of Language - An Investigation into the Limits of Human Gramma

Researchers at the University of Aarhus are looking at how people process different types of sentence structures and probing the limits of grammar. The focus of this research is the possibility of extracting elements across long distances from embedded clauses to the left edge of main clauses in Danish and English, as Professor Anne Mette Nyvad explains.

Clausal Postpositioning in German Regional Language

This article presents the results of a corpus study of clausal postpositioning, that is, the occurrence of a sentential constituent in the postfield of the matrix clause to which it is syntactically linked, in German regional language. Analysis of 11,027 clauses from 60 spoken regiolect and dialect texts reveals that clausal postpositionings occur most frequently as non-relative finite clauses, followed by relative clauses, and lastly, infinitival constructions. Notably, while non-relative finite clauses comprise a smaller proportion of postpositionings in regiolect compared to dialect, relative clauses and infinitival constructions show the opposite trend. Adjunct clauses occur most frequently, followed by complement clauses, in both regiolect and dialect. Furthermore, in both varieties, postpositioning is more prevalent in verb-first and verb-second clauses than in verb-final clauses. This finding is attributed to restrictions on syntactic subordination. Finally, non-relative finite clause and relative clause types that may be embedded in both the postfield and inner field are center-embedded at mean relative frequencies of 13.42% and 28.17%, respectively. These findings shed light on contradictory claims in the literature regarding the possibility and frequency of clausal embedding in the inner field.

Incremental Discourse-Update Constrains Number Agreement Attraction Effect.

While a large body of work in sentence comprehension has explored how different types of linguistic information are used to guide syntactic parsing, less is known about the effect of discourse structure. This study investigates this question, focusing on the main and subordinate discourse contrast manifested in the distinction between restrictive relative clauses (RRCs) and appositive relative clauses (ARCs) in American English. In three self-paced reading experiments, we examined whether both RRCs and ARCs interfere with the matrix clause content and give rise to the agreement attraction effect. While the standard attraction effect was consistently observed in the baseline RRC structures, the effect varied in the ARC structures. These results collectively suggest that discourse structure indeed constrains syntactic dependency resolution. Most importantly, we argue that what is at stake is not the static discourse structure properties at the global sentence level. Instead, attention should be given to the incremental update of the discourse structure in terms of which discourse questions are active at any given moment of a discourse. The current findings have implications for understanding the way discourse structure, specifically the active state of discourse questions, constrains memoryretrieval.

The emergence of a tailored multidimensional model for evaluating efficiency in teaching hospitals: main challenges and proposition of a theoretical framework

Background: Teaching hospitals serve as training grounds for students and residents across various specialties, while also providing more complex healthcare services that contribute to research production and advancements in health technologies. Considering all their functions, the efficiency evaluation of these institutions warrants special attention in the literature. This study aims to review the existing literature, identify the main challenges faced by previous studies, and establish new guidelines to address flaws in models assessing teaching hospitals' efficiency. Methods: An integrative review was conducted across five major databases: Springer Link, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Inderscience. The search yielded 384 records, and after removing duplicates and following PRISMA guidelines, 28 studies were deemed eligible for inclusion. Results: The review reveals a scarcity of evaluation models specifically tailored to teaching hospitals. Data envelopment analysis is the most frequently used method in this field but exhibits several weaknesses. Key challenges identified include the lack of literature on the positive relationship between increased inputs and quality, proving the reliability of DEA, addressing its limitations in handling numerous input and output variables, improving communication with hospital managers, refining the categorization of healthcare professionals, and enhancing the understanding of productivity differences between medical residents and senior physicians. Conclusions: We propose a theoretical framework to guide future studies on the efficiency assessment of teaching hospitals, emphasizing the need for a multidimensional approach. This model should incorporate economic-financial, quality, and educational dimensions, alongside commonly applied dimensions such as healthcare, staff, and physical and technological infrastructure. Moreover, the challenges pointed out based on the integrative review suggest a rich agenda for upcoming studies, encourage the development of management tools to assess efficiency in teaching hospitals and contribute to formulating an agenda to orient public policies related to efficient resource management in teaching hospitals and educational and health systems.

Argument structure affects relative clause extraposition: corpus evidence from Persian

The extraposition of a relative clause creates a discontinuous dependency between the relative clause and its host noun phrase, as in A man just entered the bank who claimed to have a gun. Since discontinuous dependencies are known to increase processing effort, a key question is why speakers produce them in the first place. Some factors known to affect extraposition – for example, the length of the relative clause and the main verb phrase – have received processing-based explanations, but others haven’t. We focus on two factors described by previous research: verb type and the grammatical function of the noun phrase hosting the relative clause. Specifically, extraposition from grammatical subjects is more common with unaccusative and passive verbs in English; further, extraposition is more common from grammatical objects than subjects in Dutch and German. We replicate these findings using corpus data from Persian. Further, we propose that verb type and grammatical function can be linked to a single underlying notion: argument structure. We demonstrate that argument structure modulates the likelihood of extraposition in Persian. We suggest that this occurs because speakers choose to extrapose relative clauses in order to keep the main clause verb close to its internal arguments. This explanation extends previous findings in psycholinguistics on the role of argument structure in speech planning during language production.

The expression of quantity in Oneida: a study in syntactic and semantic variation

Abstract One of the questions linguists try to answer is to what extent conceptual content is expressed similarly across languages. The null hypothesis is that languages express the same sorts of things but may differ in the particular morphological and syntactic constructions they use. This paper describes one semantic domain, quantification over objects in Oneida (Northern Iroquoian), where there is both variation in expression and variation in expressibility. Through a detailed and comprehensive description of quantificational expressions, we show that in Oneida quantification is pervasively and almost exclusively expressed by productive verb forms that are not number words; moreover, these verb forms head clauses (count clauses) adjoined to main clauses. We argue that to this morphosyntactic difference between Oneida and most languages corresponds a semantic difference, namely that in Oneida quantificational expressions denote properties of sets, whereas in most other languages they denote relations between sets (or between entities and sets), and this difference accounts for the systematic absence of proportional and partitive quantifiers in Oneida.

Adverbial Adjunct Clause Found in The Novel “The Happy Prince and Other Tales”: A Syntax Analysis

In the novel "The Happy Prince and Other Tales" by Oscar Wilde, published in 1888, adverbial adjunct clauses are frequently used to qualify the main clause process concerning agencies such as time, means, causes, and ends, often with elements that determine the nature of their relationship (Langacker 2008: 419–420). There are 93 sentences using adverbial adjuncts of different types, including time, place, reason or cause, manner, degree, and frequency. The novel is colorful with the use of these subordinate clauses. This analysis focuses on the use of adverbial adjunct clauses in the novel to convey the philosophical and idealistic meaning of human life and society. "The Happy Prince and Other Tales" is interesting to analyze because the language is very easy to understand and consists of no more than one hundred pages.

The Significance of Τοῦτο in Act 2:16 to the Eschatology of Acts

Abstract The demonstrative pronoun “τοῦτό” in Acts 2:16 carries pragmatic weight, suggesting markedness and emphasizing the eschaton (v. 17). Despite scholarly oversight, verse 16’s syntactical placement within the main clause underscores its significance. This article seeks to rectify this neglect by examining Acts 2:16’s theological and syntactical importance, particularly the usage of “Τοῦτο” and its implications for understanding Acts’ eschatological framework. Through linguistic analysis, theological exploration, and intertextual connections, this study aims to reveal the profound implications of Acts 2:16 for the eschatological discourse in Luke’s narrative.

In Search of the Prototype of Forced Marriage

Abstract This article discusses the categorization of the phenomenon of bush wives as forced marriage under the residual category of other inhumane acts in the Ongwen case. It reveals how judges at the International Criminal Court have used an Aristotelian Approach to characterization which entailed them to examine, on the basis of a jurisprudentially established checklist, whether the bush wives phenomenon shares the properties of the crime category of other inhumane acts. By discussing the forced marriage practices through an ‘other inhumane acts’ categorization, this article reveals the limits and pitfalls of the Aristotelian Approach. The main problem is that the Aristotelian Approach fails to grasp that categorization does not merely work on the basis of a checklist logic but also is a culturally determined process in which cultural prototypes need to be examined. This article’s main proposition is to consider an alternative way of categorization drawing from the philosophy of language and social sciences and suggests judges adopt a Prototype Approach. This approach enables judges to move away from a generic way of labelling different fact patterns through a checklist of properties and take on a more tailor-made and culturally sensitive approach that involves categorization through the discussion of the similarity and distinctiveness of a certain fact pattern to a prototype. In this way, judges can diversify interpretation of the other inhumane acts category in light of local practices as it requires a fresh decision of the facts by engaging with cultural practices in a more sensitive way and examining whether this phenomenon entails prototypical marriage practices. In this way, prototype theory opens new pathways in terms of how we label cultural practices and how we use the residual category of other inhumane acts.

Unconscious bias among seafarers

This systematic literature review explores the concept of unconscious bias within the maritime industry, focusing specifically on seafarers. Unconscious bias refers to implicit stereotypes and attitudes that influence decision-making processes without conscious awareness. In the context of seafaring, where diverse crews operate in confined spaces for extended periods, understanding and addressing unconscious bias becomes crucial for fostering inclusive and harmonious shipboard environments and mitigating gender bias. The review begins by examining theoretical frameworks related to unconscious bias, drawing from psychological, organizational behavior, and maritime literature. Various models, such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and social cognitive theories, are explored to provide a foundation for understanding how biases develop and manifest among seafaring populations. The maritime industry's unique characteristics, including hierarchical structures, cultural diversity, and isolation during voyages, are analyzed to identify specific factors that may contribute to the emergence of unconscious biases. Additionally, the review delves into studies addressing the impact of biases on decision-making, communication, and overall team dynamics within the maritime context. Furthermore, the review explores interventions and best practices proposed in the literature to mitigate unconscious bias among seafarers. Training programs, diversity initiatives, and cultural awareness campaigns are examined for their effectiveness in promoting a more inclusive and equitable maritime workplace. Based on this review, we conceptualize unconscious gender bias as a socio-technical problem and propose a theoretical framework that offers a combination of technological, organizational, and societal approaches as well as three main propositions to possibly mitigate the biased effects. Lastly, this paper considers future research on the management of unconscious gender bias in the organizational context.

Are main clauses really ‘main’ clauses? The case of relative clauses in spoken Estonian and Finnish

Are main clauses really ‘main’ clauses? The case of relative clauses in spoken Estonian and Finnish

Somali discontinuous coordinate structures with a focus on conjunct hyperbaton in poetry

Abstract Noun phrase coordination in Somali is expressed by the conjunction iyo to create a single coordinate noun phrase. This is well documented. What has not been documented are instances of the conjunction iyo without a conjunct immediately adjacent to one or the other side of it. In this article I consider such cases. Some are discontinous coordinate constructions in which the conjunct following iyo is not present immediately after the conjunction but occurs later, with other words intervening. I suggest two main types of such cases: conjunct hyperbaton and insertion of an adverbial or discourse marker. Another use of iyo, one in which there is no conjunct immediately before the conjunction, and only one immediately following it at the end of a sentence, is also discussed. This is the case of afterthought, and I suggest that these cases occur only at the end of a main clause. The main focus of the article is on conjunct hyperbaton, which I suggest only occurs in poetry. Some implications of this are discussed in the final section with respect to the Coordinate Structure Constraint (Ross, 1967) as well as aesthetics.

Formal Logical Modeling of Impersonal Sentences in the English Language

Introduction. The main feature of a sentence is the predicative connection. The two main units – substantive and verbal – are represented in the sentence either through separate words – subject and predicate – or synthetically in one of the parts of the sentence. The question whether subject and predicate play equal part in a sentence remains to be clarified since there are strong arguments in support of every position. The case of impersonal constructions is especially intriguing. So, in English one can find impersonal constructions, which, at first glance, lack a subject.Methodology and sources. The present study aims to provide formal logical modeling of English independent clause with impersonal constructions based on active and passive verb, by means of the binomiality idea. In cases when a sentence begins not from the main couple, some of the passive constructions express the subject partially or don’t express it at all. The binomiality idea claims the existence of an implicit subject, as well as semi-implicit subject that includes a desemantised adverb there, thus, it explains these cases in the fullest way possible. Results and discussion. The formal logical modeling allows concluding that grammar-wise an impersonal construction is a personal one. A predicate with an active verb is accompanied by an explicit subject. In case a sentence starts from the main couple, a predicate with a passive verb can be accompanied by an explicit and (less often) semi-implicit subject, for the membrane of a passive verbal semifinitive is less relief, than the membrane of an active verbal semifinitive and can be subject to pressure from the strong space specifier. If a sentence does not begin with the main couple, then an implicit subject, as well as semiimplicit and explicit ones are possible. In declarative sentences, the implicity of a subject is provided by a strengthening element, whilst in question sentences it is done by a questioning one. Therefore, the weak space specifier cannot be used in declarative sentences, whilst in questioning sentences the strong space specifier is substituted by the weak one.Conclusion. In cases with desemantised pronoun it or desemantised adverb there the term “impersonal construction” is only reasonable in a semantic sense, but not in a grammar one. Grammar-wise the singular third person is set in all cases – through an explicit or implicit substantive semifinitive and a space specifier. At the same time a semi-implicit subject can be seen quite rarely, whilst an implicit one – very rarely. Ellipsis of subject in English impersonal constructions is impossible.

Rational Thinking and Value Reconstruction of School Reform: Based on the Historical Evolution of China’s Macroscopic Educational Goals

Abstract This paper discusses the historical evolution of Chinese school reform, focusing on the important roles of rational thinking and value reconstruction in the process of reform. Through the review of the historical process of school reform in China, the important milestones of the past reform are determined, which provides the historical background for understanding the reform. This paper analyzes the application of rational thinking in school reform and emphasizes the necessity of accurately identifying and solving difficulties in the process of reform. At the same time, it emphasizes the key role of value reconstruction in the realization of an effective reform and provides a theoretical framework and practical direction. At the macro level, the paper examines the historical evolution of China’s educational goals and analyzes the impact of these changes on school reform. Through the historical perspective, this paper reveals the historical enlightenment in the reform, discusses the intersection of history and value reconstruction, and puts forward the school reform strategy based on the historical perspective. The paper looks forward to the future of school reform based on historical evolution and points out the upcoming challenges and possible directions of reform. In summary, the main proposition of this paper is to effectively promote school reform through rational thinking and value reconstruction, combined with historical perspective. The core elements of the article include historical review, rational analysis, value reconstruction, and macroscopic education objectives. This paper uses the method of historical analysis and literature review to provide guidance and reference for future school reform.