Increasing Input Costs Research Articles

Economic Comparison of Stocker Cattle Performance on Winter Wheat vs Summer-Dormant Tall Fescue with Nitrogen or Interseeded Alfalfa in the Southern Great Plains

Abstract Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a significant forage source for livestock grazing in the Southern Great Plains (SGP). However, increasing input costs and changing climate conditions compel producers and researchers to search for alternative forage systems, such as cool-season perennials. Specifically, cool-season perennials with summer dormancy traits can survive droughts in the SGP. This paper aimed to determine the net returns of three different types of cool-season perennial summer-dormant tall fescue [Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons.] systems either with N fertilizer or interseeded with alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and the traditional graze-out annual winter wheat forage system. The data were from a 5-year experiment conducted in south-central Oklahoma. Animal performance results indicated that the traditional graze-out winter annual wheat forage system provided more total gains at 434 kg ha-1 than the three tall fescue variety systems at 326 kg ha-1 (p = 0.006) due to more grazing days. Thus, the gross revenue estimated at a cost of gain of $1.60 kg-1 gain for wheat at $694 ha-1 was greater than the average gross revenue of $521 ha-1 for the tall fescue systems. However, the average total cost for the perennial tall fescue systems ($374 ha-1) was lesser than the total cost ($594 ha-1) of the wheat system. Overall, the average net returns were similar for all grazing systems at about $145 ha-1.

A tandem dual-pathway non-radical water purification simultaneously induced by single-molecule peroxymonosulfate with a catalyst of coexisting Cu single atoms and Fe3C nanoparticles

The non-radical pathways of persulfate (PMS/PS)-based heterogeneous advanced oxidation processes offer effective means for treating complex water matrices. However, the large-scale application is hindered by the increased input costs and substantial accumulation of SO42–. Therefore, it is crucial to develop novel pathways for efficient PMS/PS activation. Here, we construct a CuSA/Fe3C-NC catalyst with Cu single atoms (SAs) and Fe3C nanoparticles (NPs) co-anchored on a carbon support. The improved d-band centers of Cu and Fe elements optimize the PMS adsorption and activation. Unlike previous studies, the electron acceptor PMS in electron transfer process is not be converted to SO42– but rather to singlet oxygen (1O2) via superoxide radicals (O2•–). A tandem dual-pathway non-radical oxidation system induced by a single-molecule PMS leads to higher PMS utilization. Under extremely low catalyst and PMS dosage conditions (catalyst dosage = 0.04 g/L, PMS dosage = 0.2 mmol/L), CuSA/Fe3C-NC + PMS system can rapidly remove bisphenol A within 30 min and achieve a mineralization rate of 85 %. This work provides strong support for the rational design of catalyst structures to achieve low-input and high-efficiency water purification processes.

Impact of Subsidy Removal on Smallholder Livestock Farmers' Productivity in Nigeria

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers' productivity in Nigeria. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: The impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers in Nigeria resulted in both challenges and opportunities. Initially, it led to increased input costs and decreased profitability, but it also spurred innovation and efficiency improvements. However, limited access to credit and inadequate support structures hindered overall productivity. Tailored policy interventions are crucial to address these challenges and promote sustainable growth in the sector. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Public choice theory, theory of economic adjustment & dependency theory may be used to anchor future studies on analyze the impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers' productivity in Nigeria. Cooperative farming models encourage resource pooling and collective action, reducing costs and enhancing market access. By tailoring subsidy reintroduction to the most vulnerable sectors, policies can be more targeted and efficient, ensuring optimal use of resources.

Growth and Instability Analysis of Pepper with Reference to Production and Price

Black pepper, the most traded spice in the world is native to South India. Though Pepper is popularly known as black gold, it does not provide the value of gold to its cultivators because of several persisting problems. Market imperfections, illegal imports, ineffective implementation of minimum import duty, lack of institutional support etc are some of the problems faced by pepper growers. Production of pepper has become unremunerative due to depressed prices in the domestic and/or global markets coupled with increasing input costs. In this context, the study has focused on trends in area, production and yield of pepper, the seasonal effect of price and also the impact of the production of pepper on its prices to diagnose reasons for price fluctuations. The main objective of the study is to examine trends in area, production and productivity in major pepper-producing states and monthly price variations of pepper in India. The study relies on time series data. The data on area, production, productivity and monthly average price of pepper have been collected from the Spices Board of India. To study the behaviour of prices of pepper in different months, a seasonal effect has been constructed. To study the interrelationship between the price of pepper with its production and different months, a correlation technique has been employed. Regression analysis is being undertaken to know the present and future price trends of pepper. The time-series analysis of the monthly average prices of pepper is attempted from 2018-19 to 2022-23. The study revealed that there is a strong positive correlation between the prices of pepper and different months. The regression coefficient reveals that month significantly contributes to the growth and instability in pepper prices in the market. The study also suggests that, if the government could provide enough institutional support to stabilise the market prices, the pepper growers would certainly consider their crop as black gold.

Georgia and Florida Logging Businesses Persevere Through Pandemic, Rising Costs, and Uncertainty

Abstract Logging businesses in Georgia and Florida combine to harvest approximately 66 million tons of timber annually, more than 10% of the US total. Since 1987, the University of Georgia has surveyed Georgia logging business owners every 5 years. Florida logging businesses were included in 2022 to gain a better understanding of logging businesses in the region. During the first quarter of 2022, questionnaires were mailed to 503 and 132 logging businesses in Georgia and Florida, respectively. Adjusted response rates were 22% in Georgia and 25% in Florida. Logging businesses produced an average of 1,956 and 2,619 tons per week in Georgia and Florida, respectively. The median owner age was approximately 56 years in Georgia and 58 years in Florida. Nearly 40% of owners were over 60 years old in both states. More than 30% of loggers in both states expected to leave the industry within 5 years. The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on logging businesses, with over 80% of logging business owners reporting reduced production, employees becoming infected, and/or difficulty finding employees. Logging business owners identified fuel, labor, trucking, and insurance as their greatest challenges in 2022. Study Implications: Rising costs, turbulent markets, and shortages of labor are stressing many logging businesses. In the short term, adjustments to logging rates are needed to respond to increased input costs. In the long term, individual logging businesses, loggers’ associations, and the forest industry should collaborate to increase the pool of qualified labor, address trucking and insurance challenges, and create succession plans for logging business owners that plan to leave the industry.

A fuzzy cognitive map approach to understand agricultural system and food prices in Türkiye: Policy recommendations for national food security

AbstractOnce one of the few self‐sufficient food countries in the world, Turkey has become dependent on imports to feed its population. Food prices have climbed to among the highest in the world, severely threatening the food security of the country. Most researchers generally attributed the high prices to the increased input costs of agriculture. Although the role of input prices cannot be denied, this paper focuses on a neglected problem that can account for food price inflation: the attitudes and behaviours of farming communities towards agriculture. Through fuzzy cognitive map methodology, known to be very effective in understanding complex networks of problems, we identify and map the relationships among the factors affecting the agriculture system, develop interview and literature‐driven scenarios, and test these scenarios to demonstrate their role in explaining the relationship between attitudes and behaviours of farming communities and food prices in Turkey. Our findings provide recommendations to policymakers.

Comparative Analysis of Adoption Behaviour of Tenant vis-à-vis Owner Farmers for Rice Cultivation

Punjab, one of the major rice-growing states in India, has been facing signifi cant challenges in its agricultural sector, such as declining productivity and increasing input costs. Therefore, this study on comparative analysis of adoption behaviour of tenant visà-vis owner farmers for rice cultivation in Mansa district of Punjab was conducted during 2021-2022. For the purpose of data collection, three blocks were selected and from each selected block fi ve villages were randomly selected. Further, from each village fi fteen farmers (ten tenant + fi ve owner) were randomly selected. Thus data were collected from 150 respondents. The results revealed that majority of the tenant and owner farmers had low level of extension contacts, social participation and mass media use. On average, majority of the tenant farmers had about six hectares of operational land holding, whereas majority of owner farmers had about fi ve hectares of operational land holding. It was noted that 30 % of the owner farmers sown recommended varieties of rice, however only 11 % of the tenant farmers adopted recommended rice varieties. Majority of the tenant and owner farmers adopted recommended chemicals for weed control and plant protection measures but did not adopt the recommended doses for the same chemicals. Tenant farmers applied 33 average number of irrigations to the rice crop, nevertheless owner farmers applied 26 average number of irrigations to the rice crop. Majority of the tenant farmers (94%) applied more than recommended dose of nitrogenous fertilizers but majority of owner farmers (56%) applied recommended dose of nitrogenous fertilizers. Only 10 % of the tenant farmers had high level of adoption index for GAP of rice crop but it was 40 % in case of owner farmers.

Using input–output models to estimate sectoral effects of carbon tax policy: Applications of the NGFS scenarios

AbstractThe Network of Central Banks and Supervisors for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) has engaged in scenario analysis that estimates a $200/ton carbon tax would be required to transition to net zero carbon by 2050. Using a $200/ton carbon tax as a base, this paper uses input–output (IO) modeling to generate price and revenue effects of a carbon tax. Results from these models, which can only be interpreted as the short‐run, upper‐bound effects of the carbon tax policy, imply that in response to a $200/ton tax on CO2e emissions, carbon‐intensive industries, such as agriculture, extraction, transportation, utilities, and chemicals, may experience price increases in the range of 10‐30 percent. Other industries will also experience price increases, but to a lesser degree, due to increased input costs associated with the tax. In addition, modeling results also suggest that industries facing elastic pricing regimes may face similar‐sized declines in revenues as a consequence of the carbon tax. Rank‐ordered impact results from these models can be utilized by bank supervisors and firms to adequately plan for sectoral‐level transition risk within their lending and/or investment portfolios.

Frontier: Creating Parallel SmartAg Systems Certificate Programs for Engineering and Applied Science Graduate Students

Highlights Integration of smart technology into applied agriculture and food production is needed by employers and academic programs. Two graduate certificate programs were designed for broad participation by both engineering and applied science students. One new ‘cornerstone’ course for each certificate was designed to link concepts of smart agriculture to discipline-specific material. Abstract. Population growth, rapid urbanization, epidemics, political instability, and resource constraints are contributing to disruptions in food supplies, while farm labor shortages, increasing input costs, disease and pest pressure, and federal regulations further reduce food security. The convergence of recent scientific (e.g., genomics) and engineering (e.g., smart sensors, robotics, artificial intelligence) technologies in agriculture have the potential to create more efficient, productive, sustainable, and resilient food systems. Yet, this fusion of agricultural practices with modern, information-based technologies requires a trained workforce that includes engineers, scientists, and production personnel to develop and apply solutions to address critical challenges in agriculture and natural resources. In response to these needs and discussions amongst experts in the field, faculty in the Agricultural and Biological Engineering (ABE) Department at the University of Florida developed two graduate certificates to provide specialized training for students interested in technical careers in agriculture. The ABE faculty have expertise in the application of innovative technology in agricultural and food systems and are uniquely positioned to develop curricula for broader audiences in engineering and agricultural sciences. These smart agriculture (SmartAg) certificates provide students with a curated sequence of required courses in addition to elective courses in an area of their interest. Students in the Engineered SmartAg Certificate (Eng_SmartAg) design, integrate, and implement hardware and software solutions, while science students in the Applied Methods for SmartAg Systems (App_SmartAg), including operators, managers, and technologists, apply solutions from existing systems and components. This article presents the curriculum and certificate development processes in different stages. We start with motivations, program needs, and highlight key discussions amongst experts in the agricultural engineering field that led to the conceptualization of the certificates. Next, we discuss two new integral courses that were developed for each certificate and describe course objectives, curriculum maps, projects, and key assessments. We then describe the process for certificate program assessment, detailing their program missions, alignment, goals, and student learning outcomes, as well as assessment plans and approaches to course evaluation and program improvement. We summarize feedback provided by students enrolled in the first cohorts of these courses and discuss changes and revisions to facilitate student learning opportunities, improve instructional effectiveness, and strengthen the courses and certificates. Finally, we discuss the early challenges in launching both certificates and future plans to market, advertise, and attract students and professionals from different engineering disciplines and agricultural backgrounds interested in agriculture and food system innovations. Keywords: Keywords., Course evaluation, Curriculum design, Graduate certificate program, Smart agriculture.

Digital transformation and European small and medium enterprises (SMEs): A comparative study using digital economy and society index data

Digital transformation is profoundly transforming SMEs' business activities, bringing about comparative advantages and associated risks. Previous studies on digital transformation and SMEs focus on technology adoption, innovation, new value creation, and dynamic capabilities. However, it is unclear how digital technology affects SMEs' specific business activities. We study SMEs' customer access, increasing competition, external funding or access to finance, rising input costs, skilled labor shortages, exogenous shocks, global crises, and regulatory issues. This study aims to fill the literature gap by exploring the impact of digital technology, using digital economy and society index (DESI) as proxies for the SME issues. We use DESI and SME data from a survey on European enterprises’ access to finance. We find that digital transformation strengthens SMEs' ability and flexibility to address main business issues. Furthermore, findings reveal that digitally transformed SMEs have fewer concerns about access to new and traditional customers, competition changes, access to finance, increasing input costs, external shocks, and regulatory changes. However, digital transformation also brings risks, such as the shortage of skilled labor and experienced managers and loss of inherent competitiveness. The novelty of our work lies in supplying quantitative knowledge on the link between digital transformation and European SMEs' critical business concerns. These findings substantially increase our understanding of the impact of digital change on European SMEs' business activities.

Can participation in cooperatives promote the adoption of green production techniques by Chinese apple growers: Counterfactual estimation based on propensity score matching

As one of the key links of agricultural green sustainable development, it is an effective path to popularize green production technology and promote farmers’ adoption of green production technology by using cooperatives as an organizational vehicle. Based on the survey of 314 apple farmers in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, the degree of adoption of green production technology was measured by the coefficient of variation method. At the same time, in view of the selection bias of farmers’ participation in cooperatives, the propensity score matching method was used to evaluate the influence of farmers’ participation in cooperatives on the adoption of green production techniques. The results showed that participation in cooperatives increases the probability of farmers adopting green production techniques from 25.29% to 30.29%, indicating that cooperatives increase the degree to which farmers adopt green production techniques. In addition, increased cognition of green production, which increases the price and net profit of products sold and reduces expectations of green production risks, is the primary channel through which cooperatives lead farmers to adopt green production technologies. Participation in cooperatives, though, increased input costs for apple production. In order to strengthen the active role of cooperatives in the popularization of green production technologies, more support should be given to cooperatives, and emphasis should be placed on strengthening their institutional development so that they can be standardized and developed at a high quality.

The impact of declining dairy fertility on calving patterns and farm systems: A case study from northern Victoria, Australia

CONTEXTFertility is crucial for pasture-based seasonal calving dairy herds, where cows are expected to calve in a single cohort at a time when peak milk production coincides with maximum pasture availability. However, dairy fertility has declined globally, and many Australian herds now use a split calving system, where non-pregnant cows are given additional opportunities to conceive by having two mating periods per year. Other factors prompting a move to split calving may include financial incentives for producing out-of-season milk, increasing levels of concentrate feeding, and pressure due to extreme seasonal conditions – all of which are particularly apparent in the northern Victorian irrigation region. OBJECTIVEThe aim of our study was to describe the fertility and herd characteristics of the study population and to examine changes in reproductive performance and calving systems that have occurred over the same period. METHODSOur study population included 38 herds from the northern Victorian irrigation region in Australia. We collected individual cow records from each herd from the date on which they started herd recording (with a median start year of 2000 for mating event data) up until December 2016, comprising both fertility-related data such as insemination records, calving dates, and pregnancy test results, and systems-related data such as production, herd size and calving pattern. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSFrom a relatively small number of herds, we were able to obtain a dataset comprising 438,578 mating and pregnancy test records for 86,974 cows. From 2003 to 2016, 6-week in-calf rate and first service conception rate declined in the study population for both Holstein-Friesians and Jerseys, while 3-week submission rate remained unchanged. At the same time, the proportion of split calving herds in our cohort markedly increased, with a significant expansion in herd size compared to their seasonal counterparts. The proportion of first parity heifers in herds also increased, which may be a function of increasing herd size, or involuntary culling due to poor fertility. SIGNIFICANCESplit calving represents a significant system change for herd managers, with concomitant effects on labour management, input costs, and the lifestyle they experience. However, if this change has been implemented due to poor fertility without considering whether the increased income outweighs increased input costs, then a suboptimal decision may have been made. Finally, high quality data remains underutilised on individual farms, with significant benefits to the Australian dairy industry if we can overcome the numerous challenges to access it.

Is There a Rainbow after the Rain? How Do Agricultural Shocks Affect Non‐Farm Enterprises? Evidence from Thailand

Increasing weather volatility manifesting itself through extreme rainfall and drought poses a significant threat to the livelihood of rural households in poor countries. Although it is documented how rainfall shocks affect agricultural activities, there is not much evidence on the indirect effects on the rest of the rural economy. Merging household panel data with grid‐level precipitation data, we study the indirect effects of rainfall shocks on non‐farm enterprises in rural Thailand. We not only consider the effects on labor supply to non‐farm enterprises but also focus on the performance of non‐farm enterprises. We find that households increase their labor participation in non‐farm self‐employment in response to excessive rainfall shocks. We do not find such a response for deficit rainfall shocks, which we explain by the increased demand for agricultural labor needed to cope with rainfall shortages. We also find suggestive evidence that rainfall shocks lead to increased input costs for non‐farm enterprises in the food processing industry, to higher input costs for farms, to higher sales revenues for agriculture‐related non‐farm enterprises and to lower expenditures for farm households on food and other consumption items. Overall, our analysis suggests that the costs of agricultural shocks are higher than what much of the literature has suggested so far. Despite limited market integration in poor rural economies, the spillovers are sizable and are transmitted through various channels. One implication is that safety nets targeted at farms may need to consider non‐farm enterprises too.

To Label or Not? Governing the Costs and Benefits of Geographic Indication of an African Forest Honey Value Chain

Geographical Indication (GI) has been proposed as a development tool, benefitting producers, consumers and local communities by creating value, improving market access, protecting local knowledge and natural resources and contributing to social cohesion as producers work together to solve common problems. However, scientific evidence on the socio-economic and environmental effects of governing value chains and origin landscapes through this voluntary, market-based arrangement is scarce. Honey appears ideal for GI labelling: having unique, physically identifiable and geographically localisable properties dependent upon the local ecosystem and beekeeping practices. White honey from the Kilum-Ijim forest in the Cameroon Highlands was GI registered in 2013 aiming to guarantee product quality, increase beekeeper selling prices and protect the forest. Panel data from stakeholder interviews, market surveys and participatory action research, shows the extent to which the GI benefited beekeepers, and how the honey value chain and landscape developed since registration. Although honey production and productivity remained steady, profits augmented as prices increased and sales became more nationwide, improving beekeeper’s living standards, appearing attributable to the GI. Deforestation however continued, and imposter brands abound, signalling potential supply shortages, increased input costs and competition which could affect future profits and the GI reputation; changing the distribution of benefits to suppliers rather than beekeepers. This suggests that whilst the Oku white honey GI has had a short-term positive livelihood effects, longer-term positive impacts conserving the landscape have been ineffective, and the durability of economic impacts is questionable. Although multiple arrangements govern the value chain and landscape, even together they are insufficient to balance the many demands on this productive landscape, suggesting the limits of weak institutions and non-state governance to protect vulnerable landscapes and ecosystems, and producer’s livelihoods. This reality check of the benefits from the Oku white honey GI highlights the importance of coherent, effective governance of both landscapes and the markets for its products.

Plant morphological traits associated with field resistance to cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

AbstractCardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) is a major insect pest of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) causing severe economic losses to the crop in all cardamom producing countries. The present control measures rely heavily on chemical insecticides, which in addition to increased input costs also lead to pesticide residues in the produce and environmental hazards. Although the crop is of high commercial value, limited efforts have been made to identify sources of resistance to this major pest. Exploiting sources of resistance along with integrated pest management tactics will help to reduce pesticide usage in this crop promoting sustainable production. The present study aimed at identifying sources of resistance against cardamom thrips and the associated plant morphological traits conferring resistance against the pest. Field screening of 180 cardamom germplasm accessions for 3 years at Appangala, Karnataka, India, resulted in identification of eight accessions resistant to cardamom thrips. Differences in panicle type and the nature of adherence of leaf sheath to the pseudostem explained a significant amount of the variance in resistance and therefore are likely to play a major role in conferring resistance against this pest. Multiple regression analysis of the different traits indicated that accessions with prostrate panicles having leaf sheath loosely adhered to the pseudostems were found to have significantly less thrips damage, when compared with other panicle and leaf sheath types. However, persistence of flower bract did not have a significant additive effect on imparting resistance against thrips. Metabolomic analysis of the accessions may provide further insight into the existence of supplementary biochemical mechanisms, if any, in imparting resistance. The identified traits and accessions can be exploited in future breeding programmes for developing thrips resistant cardamom varieties.

Principles of multifunctional agriculture for supporting agriculture in metropolitan peri-urban areas: The case of Greater Melbourne, Australia

Abstract Agriculture in metropolitan peri-urban areas is influenced by structural changes associated with increased input costs, an aging farming population, difficulty in retaining labour, and fluctuations in market conditions. In the absence of clear planning policies, the proximity to the city has fuelled land fragmentation, encroachment, and increased land value, thus increasing pressure on existing farms. Using the case of Greater Melbourne in Victoria, we argue that metropolitan planning policies have diminished the agricultural potential of peri-urban agriculture by creating a precedent for more urban uses in otherwise agricultural landscapes. The future of peri-urban agriculture requires alternative models that address emerging issues of resilience and viability. The concept of Multifunctional Agriculture (MFA) presents a useful model to re-evaluate metropolitan peri-urban agriculture beyond food production functions by integrating the environmental and socio-cultural role into local and regional economies. Based on the adopted definition and broad characterisation of MFA as implemented in the European Union, we discuss a set of six principles of multifunctionality: flexibility, collaboration, smaller-can-be-better, long-term strategies, use of technology, and circular resource use. These principles aim to expose the fundamental processes required for transforming agriculture in Australian metropolitan peri-urban areas.

Achieving low methane and nitrous oxide emissions with high economic incomes in a rice-based cropping system

Rice cultivation faces increasing challenges to enhance the net ecosystem economic budget (NEEB), which is the balance between economic benefits and environmental costs. Plastic film mulching cultivation (MC) was evaluated for its ability to decrease the global warming potential (GWP) while increasing economic benefits relative to rainfed (RF) and traditional irrigation (TI). To comprehensively assess the effect on NEEB, the CH4 and N2O emissions and grain yields in a rice-based cropping system were measured from 2010 to 2014. The effects of urease and nitrification inhibitors (UNIs) and controlled release fertilizer (CRF) were also estimated. Shifting the field management from RF to MC had unclear impact on CH4 emissions, but increased N2O emissions by 77%. In contrast, switching TI to MC caused a significant reduction (45–85%) in CH4 emissions, producing a strong decrease in GWP, although N2O emissions substantially increased (206–1153%). The decrease in CH4 emissions was attributed to the reduced dissolved organic carbon and CH4 production, whereas the increase in N2O emissions might have resulted from the higher NH4+ concentrations and more favorable soil water content. Integrated assessment showed that MC significantly enhanced NEEB by 6136–8362 CNY ha−1 y−1 relative to RF as the yields increased and input costs reduced. Although MC reduced the yields, the much lower input and GWP costs led to a substantial increase in NEEB (2607–5593 CNY ha−1 y−1) relative to TI. Under MC conditions, applying UNIs and CRF obviously increased input costs though it always tended to enhance grain yields, thus decreasing NEEB by approximately 490–960 CNY ha−1 y−1, except CP addition, which had a positive effect on NEEB. The results demonstrate that MC, particularly MC + CP, are effective management strategies to reduce the environmental costs and increase the economic benefits of rice fields suffering from a lack of water supply.

Specialty fruit production in the Pacific Northwest: adaptation strategies for a changing climate

Specialty fruit crops represent a substantial portion of the value of agricultural production in the Pacific Northwest. Climate change may threaten water sources, lengthen the dry season, raise temperatures during both the winter chilling period and the growing season, and facilitate the spread of fungal diseases and insects. Such changes have the potential to substantially reduce net returns due to increased input costs and altered yields and product quality. Many management strategies that are already being used to prolong growing seasons in marginal production areas and to improve production and quality in established production regions may also be useful as adaptation strategies under a changing climate. These strategies mostly involve moderating temperatures and controlling or compensating for mismatches between phenology and seasonal weather conditions.

Crisis and Financing – or the Practical Financing Decisions of Hungarian Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

The standard operational mechanism of economies was substantially overwritten by the economic crisis of 2008. Due to the relative abundance of resources and the lenient banking practices prior to the crisis that focused on bonuses, there were no barriers to lending, which was possible both in foreign or in the national currency. The financial problems that followed the outbreak of the crisis ended the previous lending practice, and the abundance of resources was replaced by poor liquidity, which – along with the macro-economic predicaments – further complicated the struggle by companies to keep their heads above water. The indebtedness of the private sector, increasing input costs, the tightening of the markets and the decline in consumption caused such difficulties in financing enterprises both at a national and international level that after several years a solution had still not been found for them. The negative effects hit the most those small and medium-sized enterprises that had only limited or no access to the international capital markets. The aim of this present paper is to show the transformation of Hungarian small and medium-sized enterprise financing based on the academic literature and the results of questionnaire-based research, and to highlight the main problems and the reactions to them that point the way to recovery. A further goal of the paper is to present the future path for financing the sector and the factors that will influence this path through an improvement in the tax system or support for credit.

The durable wheat disease resistance gene Lr34 confers common rust and northern corn leaf blight resistance in maize.

SummaryMaize (corn) is one of the most widely grown cereal crops globally. Fungal diseases of maize cause significant economic damage by reducing maize yields and by increasing input costs for disease management. The most sustainable control of maize diseases is through the release and planting of maize cultivars with durable disease resistance. The wheat gene Lr34 provides durable and partial field resistance against multiple fungal diseases of wheat, including three wheat rust pathogens and wheat powdery mildew. Because of its unique qualities, Lr34 became a cornerstone in many wheat disease resistance programmes. The Lr34 resistance is encoded by a rare variant of an ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) transporter that evolved after wheat domestication. An Lr34‐like disease resistance phenotype has not been reported in other cereal species, including maize. Here, we transformed the Lr34 resistance gene into the maize hybrid Hi‐II. Lr34‐expressing maize plants showed increased resistance against the biotrophic fungal disease common rust and the hemi‐biotrophic disease northern corn leaf blight. Furthermore, the Lr34‐expressing maize plants developed a late leaf tip necrosis phenotype, without negative impact on plant growth. With this and previous reports, it could be shown that Lr34 is effective against various biotrophic and hemi‐biotrophic diseases that collectively parasitize all major cereal crop species.