Increase In Working Hours Research Articles

Financially Fragile Households: Evidence and Implications

We examine households’ financial fragility by looking at their capacity to come up with $2,000 in 30 days. Using data from the 2009 TNS Global Economic Crisis Study, we document that approximately one-quarter of U.S. respondents are certain they could not come up with that sum. If we include respondents who report being probably unable to do so, nearly half of respondents are financially fragile. Although financial fragility is more severe among low-income households, a sizable fraction of seemingly middle-class Americans are also at risk. Respondents with low educational attainment and no financial education, families with children, those who have suffered large wealth losses, and the unemployed are also more likely than others to report being unable to cope with a financial shock. Households’ own savings are the resource used most often to deal with shocks, but resources of family and friends, formal and alternative credit, increased work hours, and sale of possessions are also used frequently, especially among some subgroups. These results indicate the need to look beyond precautionary savings to understand how families cope. We also find evidence suggestive of a “pecking order” of coping methods, with savings first in line. Comparing financial fragility and methods of coping among the United States and seven other industrialized countries, we find differences in coping ability but also general evidence of a consistent ordering of methods.

The intergenerational effects of paternal migration on schooling and work: What can we learn from children's time allocations?

This paper explores the short-run effects of a father's U.S. migration on his children's schooling and work outcomes in Mexico. To get around the endogeneity of paternal migration, I use individual fixed effects and instrumental variables estimation (FEIV) where the instrumental variables are based on U.S. city-level employment statistics in two industries popular with Mexican immigrants. Overall, the estimates suggest that in the short-run, children reduce study hours and increase work hours in response to a father's U.S. migration. Decomposing the sample into sex- and age-specific groups suggests that this is mainly driven by the effects of paternal migration on 12–15 year-old boys. These results are consistent with a story in which the immediate aftermath of a father's migration is one of financial hardship that is borne in part by relatively young children.

Changes in Wives' Employment When Husbands Stop Working: A Recession‐Prosperity Comparison

American families are experiencing the effects of the “Great Recession.” Most of the job losses are accruing to men, so families may find it strategic for wives to enter the labor force, or increase their work hours. We consider this possibility using the May 2008 and 2009 Current Population Survey, and compare findings to May 2004 and 2005 data, a time of relative prosperity. We find that wives of husbands who stopped working during the recession were more likely to increase work hours, and more likely to commence or seek work. During the Great Recession years, the effect for wives entering the labor force is significantly greater than during the earlier years of relative prosperity.

Making public transport financially sustainable

Over the past two decades, Germany has improved the quality of its public transport services and attracted more passengers while increasing productivity, reducing costs, and cutting subsidies. Public transport systems reduced their costs through organizational restructuring and outsourcing to newly founded subsidiaries; cutting employee benefits and freezing salaries; increasing work hours, using part-time employees, expanding job tasks, and encouraging retirement of older employees; cooperation with other agencies to share employees, vehicles, and facilities; cutting underutilized routes and services; and buying new vehicles with lower maintenance costs and greater passenger capacity per driver. Revenues were increased through fare hikes for single tickets while maintaining deep discounts for monthly, semester, and annual tickets; and raising passenger volumes by improved quality of service, and full regional coordination of timetables, fares, and services. Those efforts by public transport agencies were enhanced by the increasing costs and restrictions on car use in German cities. Although the financial performance of German public transport has greatly improved, there are concerns of inequitable burdens on labor, since many of the cost reduction measures involved reducing wages or benefits of workers.

A Prospective Cohort Study Investigating Factors Associated With Depression During Medical Internship

Although the prevalence of depression among medical interns substantially exceeds that of the general population, the specific factors responsible are not well understood. Recent reports of a moderating effect of a genetic polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) in the serotonin transporter protein gene on the likelihood that life stress will precipitate depression may help to understand the development of mood symptoms in medical interns. To identify psychological, demographic, and residency program factors that are associated with depression among interns and to use medical internship as a model to study the moderating effects of this polymorphism. A prospective cohort study. Thirteen US hospitals. Seven hundred forty interns entering participating residency programs. Subjects were assessed for depressive symptoms using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), a series of psychological traits, and the 5-HTTLPR genotype prior to internship and then assessed for depressive symptoms and potential stressors at 3-month intervals during internship. The PHQ-9 depression score increased from 2.4 prior to internship to a mean of 6.4 during internship (P < .001). The proportion of participants who met PHQ-9 criteria for depression increased from 3.9% prior to internship to a mean of 25.7% during internship (P < .001). A series of factors measured prior to internship (female sex, US medical education, difficult early family environment, history of major depression, lower baseline depressive symptom score, and higher neuroticism) and during internship (increased work hours, perceived medical errors, and stressful life events) was associated with a greater increase in depressive symptoms during internship. In addition, subjects with at least 1 copy of a less-transcribed 5-HTTLPR allele reported a greater increase in depressive symptoms under the stress of internship (P = .002). There is a marked increase in depressive symptoms during medical internship. Specific individual, internship, and genetic factors are associated with the increase in depressive symptoms.

Students' perceptions about the transition to the clinical phase of a medical curriculum with preclinical patient contacts; a focus group study

BackgroundStudies have shown that medical students experience the transition between preclinical and clinical training as a stressful period. They are generally frustrated by their inability to apply their knowledge to solve clinical problems in practice. Preclinical patient contacts may offer a solution to this 'shock of practice.' We studied how students who have had preclinical patient contacts perceive the transition from preclinical to clinical training and, more specifically, how they value these early patient contacts as preparation for learning in clinical practice.MethodsA purposive sample of 21 students participated in three focus groups which met twice during their first weeks of clinical clerkships. The interviews were recorded and transcribed literally. Qualitative content analysis of the transcriptions was performed.ResultsAccording to the students, working in clinical practice was enjoyable, motivated them to study and helped them to develop non-analytical reasoning skills. The students experienced stress due to increased working hours and work load, uncertainty as to what was expected of them and self-perceived lack of knowledge. They did not experience a major gap between the preclinical and clinical phase and felt well prepared for the clerkships. The preclinical patient contacts were considered to be instrumental in this.ConclusionsEarly patient contacts seem to ameliorate the shock of practice and prepare students for clinical work. The problems mentioned by the students in this study are mainly related to the socialisation process. The results of this study have to be validated by quantitative research.

The effect of work hours on adverse events and errors in health care

Introduction We studied the relationship between registered nurses' extended work duration with adverse events and errors, including needlestick injuries, work-related injuries, patient falls with injury, nosocomial infections, and medication errors. Method Using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression, this secondary analysis of 11,516 registered nurses examined nurse characteristics, work hours, and adverse events and errors. Results All of the adverse event and error variables were significantly related to working more than 40 hours in the average week. Medication errors and needlestick injuries had the strongest and most consistent relationships with the work hour and voluntary overtime variables. Discussion This study confirms prior findings that increased work hours raise the likelihood of adverse events and errors in healthcare, and further found the same relationship with voluntary overtime. Impact on Industry Legislation has focused on mandatory overtime; however, this study demonstrated that voluntary overtime could also negatively impact nurse and patient safety.

Does labour supply respond to a flat tax?

We exploit the exogenous change in marginal tax rates created by the Russian flat tax reform of 2001 to identify the effect of taxes on the labour supply of men and women. We apply a weighted difference-in-difference regression approach and instrumental variables to estimate labour supply functions using a panel dataset. The mean regression results indicate that the tax reform led to a statistically significant increase in hours of work for men but had no effect on work hours for women. However, we find a positive response to tax changes in both tails of the female work hour distribution. We also find that the reform increased the probability of finding a job among both men and women. Despite significant variation in individual responses, the aggregate labour supply elasticities are trivial. This suggests that reform-induced changes in labour supply are an unlikely explanation for the amplified personal income tax revenues that followed the reform.

The Intergenerational Effects of Paternal Migration on Schooling and Work: What can We Learn from Children's Time Allocations?

This paper explores the immediate effects of a father's U.S. migration on his children's schooling and work outcomes in Mexico. To get around the endogeneity of paternal migration, I use individual fixed effects and IV estimation where the instrumental variables are based on U.S. city-level employment statistics in two industries popular with Mexican immigrants. Overall, the estimates suggest that children reduce study hours and increase work hours in response to a father's U.S. migration. Decomposing the sample into sex- and age-specific groups shows that the main group driving these results are 12-15 year-old boys. These results are consistent with a story in which the immediate aftermath of a father's migration is one of financial hardship that is borne in large part by relatively young children.

The effects of motherhood timing on career path

This paper estimates the effects of motherhood timing on female career path, using biological fertility shocks to instrument for age at first birth. Motherhood delay leads to a substantial increase in earnings of 9% per year of delay, an increase in wages of 3%, and an increase in work hours of 6%. Supporting a human capital story, the advantage is largest for college-educated women and those in professional and managerial occupations. Panel estimation reveals both fixed wage penalties and lower returns to experience for mothers, suggesting that a “mommy track” is the source of the timing effect.

Efficiency aspects of increasing inheritance taxes while decreasing income taxes

This article tries to shed some light on the economic efficiency aspects of a tax reform that would increase inheritance taxes while decreasing income taxes. An analysis of labour market decisions following the activation of such a reform is presented. An international comparison of inheritance tax collection shows that almost all industrial countries impose an inheritance tax. However, government revenue from inheritance and gift taxes in Europe is lower than 1% of GDP and is very low in the United States as well. Applying the proposed reform could increase work hours and delay retirement decisions.

Economic assessment of single-walled carbon nanotube processes

The carbon nanotube market is steadily growing and projected to reach $1.9 billion by 2010. This study examines the economics of manufacturing single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) using process-based cost models developed for arc, CVD, and HiPco processes. Using assumed input parameters, manufacturing costs are calculated for 1 g SWNT for arc, CVD, and HiPco, totaling $1,906, $1,706, and $485, respectively. For each SWNT process, the synthesis and filtration steps showed the highest costs, with direct labor as a primary cost driver. Reductions in production costs are calculated for increased working hours per day and for increased synthesis reaction yield (SRY) in each process. The process-based cost models offer a means for exploring opportunities for cost reductions, and provide a structured system for comparisons among alternative SWNT manufacturing processes. Further, the models can be used to comprehensively evaluate additional scenarios on the economics of environmental, health, and safety best manufacturing practices.

A survey of solar PV program implementers in Asia and the Pacific regions

Numerous renewable energy electrification programs that have been implemented in developing countries over the past decade have met with relatively limited success. Much of the effort that has been invested in attempting to understand the causes of lack of success has focused on the identification of barriers. This narrow focus on only barriers, however, fails to consider other important factors that may contribute to the success or lack of success of programs. An email survey was used to obtain the views of those with responsibility for the implementation of solar PV home system programs in Asia and the Pacific region on their programs. The purpose of the survey was to better understand the factors that implementing agencies consider to be important in the designing and implementation of SHS programs. The survey results indicated that program objectives tend to be couched in very broad and administrative terms rather than in terms of the outcomes for system users, weakening the ability to make meaningful assessments of program success. Although best practice program guidelines were infrequently used, even where program implementers were aware of their existence, even more fundamental problems were found to beset some programs. Adequate funding support and the use of appropriate financing mechanisms were considered to be the most critical factors for program success and a variety of financing mechanisms were used, including micro-credit and a novel mechanism which indicated a maturation of program design. System maintenance and monitoring were considered important by most program implementers, although training was reported to be provided to both technicians and system users in a minority of cases and some program implementers expressed concerns over the timeliness of program monitoring and maintenance where this had been outsourced. Unit system cost varied from US$7.20/Wp to US$14.58/Wp between programs and was determined by factors such as remoteness, number of system program users and reliance on imported equipment. The program outcomes commonly regarded to be achieved were increased gender equity, increased social activities, increased access to information and increased working hours. The majority of program implementers, however, did not regard their programs as having resulted in increased employment or household income. Factors seen as instrumental in limiting program success were lack of adequate government policy and funding support, lack of involvement of local communities in program design, and a lack of in-house technical know-how, and a lack of availability of components in locations proximate to users. The main conclusions from results of the survey are that the reasons behind program success or lack of success are complex, but that program success could be improved in many instances by following best practice guidelines, specifying program objectives in terms of outcomes for users, ensuring that adequate funding and policy support is available and that program implementers have adequate training in program management. The results were used to develop a comprehensive set of criteria that could be applied in the development of future programs.

SWEtaxben: A Swedish Tax/Benefit Micro Simulation Model and an Evaluation of a Swedish Tax Reform

The purpose of SWEtaxben is to evaluate the impact of changes in the tax/benefit systems on households as well as the central governmental budget. Relating to the micro simulation literature this model can be labeled a static micro simulation model with behavioral changes. This behavioral change takes two different forms and use two different types of models; first binary models that describe mobility in/out from non-work states such as old age pension, disability, unemployment, long term sickness and second models that describe change in working hours and welfare participation. Thus, apart from the choice to work or not to work, working hours conditional on working as well as welfare participation are treated as endogenous variables. As an application the model is used to evaluate the recent Swedish make work pay reform, effective from 2007 and further reinforced in 2008 and 2009. The key characteristic of this reform is an in-work tax credit and decreased state tax rate. Simulations performed by SWEtaxben show increased working hours at both the intensive as well as extensive margin. The tax decrease together with dynamic changes results in a strong increase in household's incomes but also a reduction in income inequality. However, even considering the increase in hours of work, the reform is far from being self-financed.

The impact of recent changes in family assistance on partnering and women's employment in New Zealand*

This paper estimates the effects of recent changes to Family Assistance tax credits on the partnering and employment outcomes for New Zealand women. We use a difference‐in‐differences approach to control for economic and other confounding factors. Specifically, we investigate differences in partnering, employment and work hours over time across groups who are and are not likely to be affected by these policy changes. We define groups based on education, wages, and presence of children. Subject to qualifications, we conclude that the Family Assistance expansion beginning in 2005 had little effect on partnering, but increased work hours for both partnered and unpartnered women.

Sleep Patterns, Work, and Strain among Young Students in Hospitality and Tourism

Good and sufficient sleep is crucial for a good quality of life. We investigated the associations between sleep patterns, work, and strain among students of hospitality and tourism. 92 students completed psychological and sleep-related questionnaires, and a sleep/work log for one week. Sleeping hours were inversely correlated with working hours. Decreased sleep quality was associated with increased scores of strain, depression and anxiety. Participants with increased working hours were 3.2 times more likely to report heightened insomnia scores than those with lower weekly working hours. Working on weekends was associated with increased strain with family life and peers. In hospitality and tourism, the employees' 'personal costs' for a 24/7 service may be underestimated; unfavourable work schedules are linked with decreased sleep quality, symptoms of depression, anxiety, and with social problems.

Self-perceived Mental Health and Job Satisfaction among Lithuanian Dentists

The aim of this study was to document dentists' self-perceived mental health complaints and job satisfaction, and to assess any correlations between the two. A postal questionnaire survey was mailed to all (N=2,449) licensed dentists registered with the Lithuanian Dental Association. The questionnaire investigated dentists' mental health and job satisfaction during the previous year (overall response rate: 68.2%). The majority of respondents (80.7%) reported being satisfied with their job. Self-perceived lack of self-esteem (OR: 0.59, 95% CI: 0.43-0.82), loneliness (OR: 0.72, 95% CI: 0.53-0.98), and especially depression (OR: 0.52, 95% CI: 0.35-0.77) had a high negative impact on dentists' job satisfaction. Nervousness (89.2%) and burnout (83.6%) were the most prevalent mental complaints and they also tended to be the most chronic of all reported mental disorders. Increasing age significantly reduced the possibility of nervousness or depression and increased the possibility of being satisfied with dental practice. Increasing working hours increased the risk of burnout, anxiety and loneliness. Overall, this study suggests that the majority of Lithuanian dentists are satisfied with their job and also enjoy their professional lives. However, a considerable proportion still reported impairment of mental health which influenced their levels of job satisfaction.

Incorporating nonmarket time into benefit–cost analyses of social programs: An application to the self-sufficiency project

Benefit–cost analysis is used extensively in the evaluation of social programs. Often, the success or failure of these programs is judged on the basis of whether the calculated net benefits to society are positive or negative. Almost all existing benefit–cost studies of social programs count entire increases in income accruing to participants in a social program as net benefits to society. However, economic theory implies that the conceptually appropriate measure of the impact of a government program on any group of individuals is the net change in their surplus (or economic rent), rather than the net change in their income. For example, if a social program causes increases in income by increasing work hours, then the lost nonmarket time that accompanies these increases has value that needs to be counted as a cost when assessing the merits of that program. In this paper, we develop a methodology for incorporating lost nonmarket time into benefit–cost analyses of social programs. We apply our methodology to the Self-Sufficiency Project (SSP), an experimental welfare-to-work program tested on a pilot basis in two provinces in Canada during the 1990s. We find that if losses in nonmarket time are ignored, SSP yields a substantial positive net benefit to society. However, if losses in nonmarket time are taken into account, the net societal benefits are greatly reduced, even becoming negative in certain instances. We conclude that future benefit–cost analyses of social programs must take effects on nonmarket time into account in order to give a more accurate picture of the net benefits of the program.

Managerial women and the work‐home interface: does age of child matter?

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore whether empirical support exists for two commonly held beliefs about the work‐home interface: women, and particularly managerial women, are prone to “super‐mother” or “super‐manage” in an effort to balance both career and child‐rearing, and these demands diminish markedly when children reach school age.Design/methodology/approachVia a survey mailed to their home, 1,103 managerial and non‐managerial men and women completed measures of work‐home and home‐work conflict, work‐related stress and strain, and reported their number of work, domestic, and leisure hours per week.FindingsSomewhat consistent with the popular beliefs, the authors found that managerial women reported working significantly more in the home; measures of conflict and strain, however, while showing some effect were not impacted to the degree that managerial women's combined number of work and home hours per week might suggest. The authors also found that measures of hours, conflict, and strain did not diminish abruptly when children entered school, due perhaps in part to manager's increased work hours and managerial women's renewed work emphasis when children entered school. Measures of hours, conflict, and strain did show some reduction for parents of teenaged children, although they were still significantly higher than those of nonparents.Originality/valueAside from being one of the few empirical papers to examine the impact of child rearing on managerial women, our data show how these demands are not confined to working parents of preschoolers.

Effects of Resident Duty-Hours Restrictions on Surgical and Nonsurgical Teaching Faculty

To evaluate the effects of resident duty-hours restrictions on teaching faculty, patient care, and the institutional climate at a single center. An anonymous questionnaire was provided to all teaching faculty (N = 606) at a single institution from March through October 2006. The questionnaire focused on perceptions of job satisfaction, workload changes, and effects on patient care and the institution. Overall response rate was 41% (n = 248). More than half of faculty (n = 140 [56%]) feel they have less time for teaching, 33% report less time for extracurricular activities, and 42% report increased work hours. Forty-three percent of respondents (n = 106) were less satisfied with their jobs after implementation of resident duty-hours restrictions, while only 2% (n = 5) were more satisfied. Of the respondent faculty, surgeons were more likely than nonsurgeons to report increased work hours (54% vs 34%; P = .002), decreased time for teaching (66% vs 51%; P = .03), lower job satisfaction (55% vs 35%; P = .003), and negative effects on their personal relationships outside of work (24% vs 12%; P = .01). Although most responses suggest that the restrictions on resident duty hours have not adversely affected patient care or the institutional climate, 33% of respondents (n = 82) felt that patient care was worse. Surgeons reported a particularly negative effect from resident duty-hours reform, especially within the areas of job satisfaction, time for teaching, and workload. Efforts to counteract these effects will be critical to maintain and recruit teaching faculty.