Increase In Collision Rate Research Articles

Adaptive Data Transmission Protocols for Energy Harvesting WSNs Used in Agriculture

Energy consumption is a major concern in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) as it affects the lifespan of sensor nodes. Battery-based WSNs have a short operating period, which makes them impractical for real-time applications, for instance in agriculture. Energy harvesting and suitable medium access control (MAC) protocols have been used to extend the lifetime of nodes. Receiver-initiated protocols have been proved to be the best solution for energy harvesting WSNs. However, they suffer from a key disadvantage, i.e. an increase in collision rate. These collisions need to be reduced using a multi-layer protocol structure. In such a context, a new solar-based hybrid MAC (SHMAC) protocol relying on receiver-initiation and characterized by a multi-layer structure is proposed. It is an adaptive protocol capable of adapting to changing weather conditions. The nodes with a high energy harvesting rate have a higher level of residual energy and are active for longer time periods compared with those with low energy harvesting characteristics. The proposed work has shown improvements in two major MAC layer parameters, i.e. collision rate and energy neutrality operation ratio (ENO).

Refractive index of quark-gluon plasma: Kinetic theory with a Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook collisional kernel

We derive the electric permittivity $\ensuremath{\epsilon}$ and magnetic permeability ${\ensuremath{\mu}}_{M}$ of the quark-gluon plasma (QGP) with the kinetic theory associated with a Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) collisional kernel. Based on them, we study the effect of collisions on the refractive index of QGP. Compared to the collisionless case, collisions change the $\ensuremath{\omega}$-behavior of $\ensuremath{\epsilon}$ and ${\ensuremath{\mu}}_{M}$ dramatically, which is responsible for the fact that the real and imaginary parts of ${n}^{2}$ and the Depine-Lakhtakia index ${n}_{\mathrm{DL}}$ are smooth functions of $\ensuremath{\omega}$. For a small collision rate $\ensuremath{\nu}$, the Depine-Lakhtakia index ${n}_{\mathrm{DL}}$ is negative in some frequency range. When the collision rate increases, the frequency range for ${n}_{\mathrm{DL}}l0$ becomes narrower. Numerical results show a critical collision rate $\ensuremath{\nu}\ensuremath{\sim}0.2{m}_{D}$, above which the Depine-Lakhtakia index ${n}_{\mathrm{DL}}$ is positive for all frequency regions, which indicates a normal refractive index. In contrast to the collisionless case, there exists some frequency range in which ${n}_{\mathrm{DL}}l0$ and the propagating mode may satisfy the dispersion relation ${n}^{2}{\ensuremath{\omega}}^{2}={k}^{2}$ simultaneously, which implies the existence of a negative refractive index.

Dangerous student car drop-off behaviors and child pedestrian–motor vehicle collisions: An observational study

Objectives: The objective of this study was to examine the association between dangerous student car drop-off behaviors and historical child pedestrian–motor vehicle collisions (PMVCs) near elementary schools in Toronto, Canada.Methods: Police-reported child PMVCs during school travel times from 2000 to 2011 were mapped within 200 m of 118 elementary schools. Observers measured dangerous student morning car drop-off behaviors and number of children walking to school during one day in 2011. A composite score of school social disadvantage was obtained from the Toronto District School Board. Built environment and traffic features were mapped and included as covariates. A multivariate Poisson regression was used to model the rates of PMVC/number of children walking and dangerous student car drop-off behaviors, adjusting for the built environment and social disadvantage.Results: There were 45 child PMVCs, with 29 (64%) sustaining minor injuries resulting in emergency department visits. The mean collision rate was 2.9/10,000 children walking/year (SD = 6.7). Dangerous drop-off behaviors were observed in 104 schools (88%). In the multivariate analysis, each additional dangerous drop-off behavior was associated with a 45% increase in collision rates (incident rate ratio [IRR] = 1.45, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02, 2.07). Higher speed roads (IRR = 1.27, 95% CI, 1.13, 1.44) and social disadvantage (IRR = 2.99, 95% CI, 1.03, 8.68) were associated with higher collision rates.Conclusions: Dangerous student car drop-off behaviors were associated with historical nonfatal child PMVC rates during school travel times near schools. Some caution must be taken in interpreting these results due small number of events and limitations in the data collection, because collision data were collected historically over a 12-year period, whereas driving behavior was only observed on a single day in 2011. Targeted multifaceted intervention approaches related to the built environment, enforcement, and education could address dangerous drop-off behaviors near schools to reduce child PMVCs and promote safe walking to school.

Supercritical CO<sub>2</sub> Extraction of γ-Linolenic Acid from <i>Spirulina platensis</i>

Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis contains large quantities of γ-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA is an essential omega-6 unsaturated fatty acid made in the human body from linoleic acid. It can be metabolized to various important eicosanoids such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, prostacyclins, and lipoxins. The aim of this study was to investigate the optimal extraction parameters of GLA from A. platensis using supercritical CO2 technology. Results showed that operating temperatures and pressures were important factors in the extraction of GLA. A maximum GLA yield of 161.98 μg/g could be obtained at a pressure of 30 MPa, a temperature of 60°C, and a CO2 flow rate of 6 mL/min. Conversely, only a yield of 104.16 μg/g could be obtained at a pressure of 10 MPa, a temperature of 40°C, and a CO2 flow rate of 6 mL/min. The correlation between pressure and yield could be explained by an increase in collision rates between CO2 molecules and carrier affinity under a high pressure. Therefore, an operating temperature between 50 and 60°C and a pressure of 30 MPa should be used to maximize the yield of GLA from A. platensis using supercritical CO2 technology.

Comparison of collision operators for the geodesic acoustic mode

The collisional damping rate and real frequency of the geodesic acoustic mode (GAM) are solved from a drift kinetic model with different collision operators. As the ion collision rate increases, the damping rate increases at low collision rate but decays at high ion collision rate. Different collision operators do not change the overall trend but influence the magnitude of the damping rate. The collision damping is much overestimated with the number-conserving-only Krook operator; on the other hand, using the Lorentz operator with a constant collision rate, the damping is overestimated at low collision rate but underestimated at high collision rate. The results from the Krook operator with both number and energy conservation terms, the Lorentz operator with an energy-dependent collision rate and the full Hirshman–Sigmar–Clarke collision operator are very close. Meanwhile, as the ion collision rate increases, the GAM frequency decreases from the collisionless value, , to for the number-conserving-only Krook operator, but to for the other four operators, which conserve both number and energy, where τ, vti and R are the ratio of electron temperature to ion temperature, the ion thermal velocity and the major radius, respectively. The results imply that the property of energy conservation of the collision operator is important to the dynamics of the GAM as well as that of number conservation, which may provide guidance in choosing collision operators in further study of the zonal flow (ZF) dynamics, such as the nonlinear simulation of the ZF-turbulence system.

Brownian ratchet in a thermal bath driven by Coulomb friction.

The rectification of unbiased fluctuations, also known as the ratchet effect, is normally obtained under statistical nonequilibrium conditions. Here we propose a new ratchet mechanism where a thermal bath solicits the random rotation of an asymmetric wheel, which is also subject to Coulomb friction due to solid-on-solid contacts. Numerical simulations and analytical calculations demonstrate a net drift induced by friction. If the thermal bath is replaced by a granular gas, the well-known granular ratchet effect also intervenes, becoming dominant at high collision rates. For our chosen wheel shape the granular effect acts in the opposite direction with respect to the friction-induced torque, resulting in the inversion of the ratchet direction as the collision rate increases. We have realized a new granular ratchet experiment where both these ratchet effects are observed, as well as the predicted inversion at their crossover. Our discovery paves the way to the realization of micro and submicrometer Brownian motors in an equilibrium fluid, based purely upon nanofriction.

Collisional damping of the geodesic acoustic mode

The frequency and damping rate of the geodesic acoustic mode (GAM) is revisited by using a gyrokinetic model with a number-conserving Krook collision operator. It is found that the damping rate of the GAM is non-monotonic as the collision rate increases. At low ion collision rate, the damping rate increases linearly with the collision rate; while as the ion collision rate is higher than vti/R, where vti and R are the ion thermal velocity and major radius, the damping rate decays with an increasing collision rate. At the same time, as the collision rate increases, the GAM frequency decreases from the (7/4+τ)vti/R to (1+τ)vti/R, where τ is the ratio of electron temperature to ion temperature.

ATLAS Upgrade for the HL-LHC: meeting the challenges of a five-fold increase in collision rate

With the LHC successfully collecting data at 7 TeV, plans are actively advancing for a series of upgrades leading eventually to about five times the LHC design-luminosity some 10-years from now in the High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) project. Coping with the high instantaneous and integrated luminosity will require many changes to the ATLAS detector. The designs are developing rapidly for an all-new inner-tracker, significant changes in the calorimeter and muon systems, as well as improved triggers. This article summarizes the environment expected at the HL-LHC and the status of various improvements to the ATLAS detector.

Effect of particle collisions and aggregation on red blood cell passage through a bifurcation

Blood flow through bifurcating vessels in the microvasculature leads to uneven distribution of red blood cells (RBC) in the downstream channels when the channels have different sizes or the flow rates through the channels are different. This phenomenon, known as plasma skimming, is responsible for the large variation in hematocrit throughout the circulatory system. Furthermore, the strong streamline curvature present within bifurcations leads to frequent collisions between the blood elements (red and white blood cells and platelets) and the vessel walls, as well as a rearrangement of the distribution of the blood elements in the channels downstream of the bifurcation. Computational models of bifurcation flows typically neglect collision and adhesion of RBCs with each other. In this paper, we use a new type of discrete-element model to investigate the effect of particle–particle collisions and RBC aggregation on modeling of plasma skimming in bifurcations. Cases are examined with and without RBC adhesion and for different hematocrit values, including validation against previous computational results. Results show significant plasma skimming in the low-flow daughter branch and an increase in fractional particle flux with increased hematocrit, as in experimental studies. Accounting for particle–particle collisions leads to a considerable increase in collision rate of particles with the vessel wall. Particles are found to approximately follow fluid velocity streamlines, and consequently particle–particle collisions and aggregation do not significantly affect plasma skimming.

Monte Carlo Simulation of O+Behavior in the Auroral Ionosphere

Altitude profiles for O + ion velocity distribution functions, O + parallel and perpendicular temperatures, O + temperature anisotropy, O + –O + and O + –O collision frequencies and O + temperature partition coefficients β || and β ⊥ are obtained in the auroral ionosphere (150 km–500 km). A Monte Carlo simulation was used to investigate the behavior of O + ions that are E × B drifting through a background of neutrals O, with the effects of O + –O resonant charge exchange and polarization interactions as well as O + –O + Coulomb collisions. We have found, for low altitudes, the effect of O + –O + Coulomb collisions is negligible and, as electric field increases, O + –O collision rate increases, therefore non-Maxwellian features of f O + appeared and becomes pronounced at large electric fields, O + temperature increases, ν O + –O increases, ν O + –O + decreases, O + temperature partition coefficients β || decreases and β ⊥ increases. As altitude increases, the effect of O + –O + Coulomb collision becomes si...

A Monte Carlo simulation of the effect of ion self-collisions on the ion velocity distribution function in the high-latitude F-region

Abstract. Non-Maxwellian ion velocity distribution functions have been theoretically predicted and confirmed by observations, to occur at high latitudes. These distributions deviate from Maxwellian due to the combined effect of the E×B drift and ion-neutral collisions. The majority of previous literature, in which the effect of ion self-collisions was neglected, established a clear picture for the ion distribution under a wide range of conditions. At high altitudes and/or for solar maximum conditions, the ion-to-neutral density ratio increases and, hence, the role of ion self-collisions becomes appreciable. A Monte Carlo simulation was used to investigate the behaviour of O+ ions that are E×B-drifting through a background of neutral O, with the effect of O+ (Coulomb) self-collisions included. Wide ranges of the ion-to-neutral density ratio ni/nn and the electrostatic field E were considered in order to investigate the change of ion behaviour with solar cycle and with altitude. For low altitudes and/or solar minimum (ni/nn≤ 10-5), the effect of self-collisions is negligible. For higher values of ni/nn, the effect of self-collisions becomes significant and, hence, the non-Maxwellian features of the O+ distribution are reduced. For example, the parallel temperature Ti\\Vert increases, the perpendicular temperature Ti⊥ decreases, the temperature anisotropy approaches unity and the toroidal features of the ion distribution function become less pronounced. Also, as E increases, the ion-neutral collision rate increases, while the ion-ion collision rate decreases. Therefore, the effect of ion self-collisions is reduced. Finally, the Monte Carlo results were compared to those that used simplified collision models in order to assess their validity. In general, the simple collision models tend to be more accurate for low E and for high ni/nn.