Incorporation Of DHA Research Articles

Antioxidant capacity and lipid composition of Brachionus plicatilis and Artemia enriched with a mixture of different post-processing formats of Navicula salinicola and Isochrysis galbana and lipid emulsions

Live prey used by the aquaculture industry are usually poor in some essential nutrients including long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and must be enriched to improve their nutritional value prior to larval feeding. Standard enrichment protocols are commonly based on lipid emulsions, being associated to a high oxidative stress condition. The combination of microalgae and lipid emulsion can palliate this situation, where the oxidative stress can be partially compensated by the antioxidant compounds present in microalgae. The maintenance of living microalgae in culture facilities is laborious, and the produced biomass may present fluctuating properties, leading to a serious bottleneck in the cultivation of live prey. Hence, substitutes for live microalgae including pastes or dried formats are receiving increasing research attention due to its nutritional stability, longer shelf-life and easy handling. In this study four different microalgae formats combined with a lipid emulsion are tested as enrichment products for Brachionus plicatilis and Artemia. Thus, fresh, frozen and spray-dried Navicula salinicola (NFRE, NFRO and NSD, respectively), and spray-dried Isochrysis galbana (ISD) were mixed with a commercial oil concentrate (IncromegaTM) or a marine lecithin (LC 60®), and added for 5 h to the rotifer or Artemia culture media. The antioxidant capacity of the microalgae extracts and the live prey activity of antioxidant enzymes, peroxides index (PxI) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were evaluated. The lipid profile of microalgae formats and enriched live preys was also determined. Ethyl acetate extract was the most antioxidant active extract of all microalgae formats. In addition, overall, I. galbana seems to be better than any N. salinicola format for a more effective protection against oxidative stress and for live prey lipid enrichment. Both rotifer and Artemia cultured with the mixture of I. galbana and the lipid emulsion generally showed higher DHA/EPA and EPA/ARA ratios. Moreover, the combination of the microalgae with LC 60® lipid emulsion highly favored Artemia´s polar lipid and DHA incorporation. Among microalgae products, both spray-dried formats better enhanced live prey n-3 LC-PUFA content. Our results highlight the great potential of new microalgae-derived products to improve effectiveness of current live prey lipid enrichment protocols used in aquaculture.

Synthesis and Preclinical Evaluation of 22-[18F]Fluorodocosahexaenoic Acid as a Positron Emission Tomography Probe for Monitoring Brain Docosahexaenoic Acid Uptake Kinetics.

Docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3), DHA], a polyunsaturated fatty acid, has an important role in regulating neuronal functions and in normal brain development. Dysregulated brain DHA uptake and metabolism are found in individuals carrying the APOE4 allele, which increases the genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and are implicated in the progression of several neurodegenerative disorders. However, there are limited tools to assess brain DHA kinetics in vivo that can be translated to humans. Here, we report the synthesis of an ω-radiofluorinated PET probe of DHA, 22-[18F]fluorodocosahexaenoic acid (22-[18F]FDHA), for imaging the uptake of DHA into the brain. Using the nonradiolabeled 22-FDHA, we confirmed that fluorination of DHA at the ω-position does not significantly alter the anti-inflammatory effect of DHA in microglial cells. Through dynamic PET-MR studies using mice, we observed the accumulation of 22-[18F]FDHA in the brain over time and estimated DHA's incorporation coefficient (K*) using an image-derived input function. Finally, DHA brain K* was validated using intravenous administration of 15 mg/kg arecoline, a natural product known to increase the DHA K* in rodents. 22-[18F]FDHA is a promising PET probe that can reveal altered lipid metabolism in APOE4 carriers, AD, and other neurologic disorders. This new probe, once translated into humans, would enable noninvasive and longitudinal studies of brain DHA dynamics by guiding both pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for neurodegenerative diseases.

Long-chain n-3 PUFA ingestion for the stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in healthy older adults.

This review aims to critically evaluate the efficacy of long-chain ո-3 PUFA ingestion in modulating muscle protein synthesis (MPS), with application to maintaining skeletal muscle mass, strength and function into later life. Ageing is associated with a gradual decline in muscle mass, specifically atrophy of type II fibres, that is exacerbated by periods of (in)voluntary muscle disuse. At the metabolic level, in otherwise healthy older adults, muscle atrophy is underpinned by anabolic resistance which describes the impaired MPS response to non-pharmacological anabolic stimuli, namely, physical activity/exercise and amino acid provision. Accumulating evidence implicates a mechanistic role for n-3 PUFA in upregulating MPS under stimulated conditions (post-prandial state or following exercise) via incorporation of EPA and DHA into the skeletal muscle phospholipid membrane. In some instances, these changes in MPS with chronic ո-3 PUFA ingestion have translated into clinically relevant improvements in muscle mass, strength and function; an observation evidently more prevalent in healthy older women than men. This apparent sexual dimorphism in the adaptive response of skeletal muscle metabolism to EPA and DHA ingestion may be related to a greater propensity for females to incorporate ո-3 PUFA into human tissue and/or the larger dose of ingested ո-3 PUFA when expressed relative to body mass or lean body mass. Future experimental studies are warranted to characterise the optimal dosing and duration of ո-3 PUFA ingestion to prescribe tailored recommendations regarding n-3 PUFA nutrition for healthy musculoskeletal ageing into later life.

A Balanced Dietary Ratio of n-6:n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Exerts an Effect on Total Fatty Acid Profile in RBCs and Inflammatory Markers in Subjects with Obesity.

The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) can reduce inflammatory markers and may therefore be useful in obesity management. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of supplementation with n-3 PUFAs on total fatty acid profile in red blood cells (RBCs), as well as biochemical and inflammatory markers, in subjects with obesity. The study consisted in a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial involving 41 subjects with obesity during a 4-month follow-up. Individuals were randomly assigned to two groups: n-3 PUFA supplementation (1.5 g fish oil) and placebo (1.5 g sunflower oil). Anthropometric, biochemical, dietetic, cytokine and total fatty acid profiles in RBCs were measured. Both groups increased their PUFA intake and DHA incorporation in RBCs. However, the placebo group showed a reduction in serum IL-8 and MCP-1 at the end of the study. A multiple linear regression model adjusted by body fat mass and sex showed that an increase in DHA in RBCs decreased the serum IL-8 levels in both study groups at the end of the study. Our results highlight the role of dietary DHA and n-3 supplementation usefulness in exerting beneficial anti-inflammatory effects.

Green biosynthesis of DHA-phospholipids in tailor-made supersaturated DHA aqueous solution and catalytic mechanism study

Docosahexaenoic acid-phospholipids (DHA-PLs) were prepared via lipase-mediated transesterification of DHA donor and phosphatidylcholine (PC) in a purely aqueous solution. Pre-existing carriers would play the role as “artificial interfaces” to adsorb water-insoluble PC and made them disperse in water. DHA donors were concentrated by a pH-responsive method and presented as supersaturated salt solutions. 153 triacylglycerol lipase structures were analyzed and screened in silico. Transesterification was carried out to further evaluate the six lipase candidates. Lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB) was the best biocatalyst with 34.8% of DHA incorporation and 80.0% of PLs yields (involving 38.1% PC and 41.9% sn-1 lyso-PC). Toxic organic solvents were avoided. Six possible microunits of our aqueous system consisting of three PLs donors (PC, lyso-PC, sn-glycero-3-PC) and two DHA donors (DHA and DHA salts), were simulated by molecular dynamics (MD) to illustrate the enzymatic mechanism based on diffusional channels, competitive bindings, and enzymatic structures.

Influence of docosahexaenoic acid on the interfacial behavior of cholesterol-containing lipid membranes: Interactions with small amphiphiles and hydration properties

Cholesterol is known to significantly modify both the structural and the dynamical properties of lipid membranes. On one side, the presence of free cholesterol molecules has been determined to stiffen the membrane bilayer by stretching the hydrophobic tails. Additionally, recent experimental and computational findings have made evident the fact that cholesterol also alters the dynamics and the hydration properties of the polar head groups of DPPC model lipid membranes. In turn, we have recently shown that the Omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, counteracts the effect of cholesterol on DPPC membrane's mechanical properties by fluidizing the bilayer. However, such behavior represents in fact a global outcome dominated by the larger lipid hydrophobic tails that neither discriminates between the different parts of the membrane nor elucidates the effect on membrane hydration and binding properties. Thus, we now perform molecular dynamics simulations to scrutinize the influence of DHA on the interfacial behavior of cholesterol-containing lipid membranes by characterizing their hydration properties and their binding to amphiphiles. We find that while cholesterol destabilizes interactions with amphiphiles and slightly weakens the lipid's hydration layer, the incorporation of DHA practically restores the interfacial behavior of pure DPPC.

Liposomal docosahexaenoic acid halts atherosclerosis progression

Abstract Background Atherosclerosis is the main cause underlying cardiovascular disease (CVD). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is a hydrophobic polyunsaturated fatty acid that exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. However, the beneficial effects of DHA on CVD have been controversial likely due to variations in bioavailability after oral intake. Purpose In this study, we aim to investigate the potential inhibiting properties of liposomal DHA on atherosclerosis progression upon intravenous administration. Methods Four weeks old ApoE−/− and LDLr−/− mice were fed on athero-inducing high fat diet for 4 weeks and then randomly divided into two groups. The mice received either control liposomes (control group) or liposomes containing DHA (liposomal DHA treatment group) via intravenous injection, twice a week for 8 weeks while still being fed on high fat diet. At the experiment endpoint, whole aortas were collected for Oil Red O staining to quantify plaque area or for biochemical analysis. Plasma was collected for total cholesterol measurement and lipidomic analysis. Aortic roots were used for histological analysis. Results Upon intravenous injection, as shown by IVIS imaging, DHA-containing liposomes accumulated preferentially in the atherosclerotic plaques. Compared to control liposomes, liposomal DHA treatment reduced the atherosclerotic plaque area in both atherosclerosis animal models, with the total plaque area decreased by 35.8% in ApoE−/− mice, (p<0.001) and by 22.4% in LDLr−/− mice (p<0.05). Plaque composition analysis revealed that liposomal DHA treatment increased collagen content and reduced the number of macrophages and neutral lipid within the plaques, resulting in a lower plaque vulnerability index (1.095 for liposomal DHA treated group vs. 1.692 for control group, p<0.05). Among those plaque macrophages, as demonstrated by immunohistology, M2 (anti-inflammatory) macrophages accounted for 4.44% in liposomal DHA treated mice and 2.24% in control liposomes treated mice (p<0.05). In agreement with the histology results, higher mRNA expression levels of anti-inflammatory markers (IL-10, CD206 and CD163) and collagen type 1 were determined in aortic tissue after liposomal DHA treatment. Moreover, liposomal DHA did not change total cholesterol level in the blood but significantly lowered plasma levels of several species of triglycerides. In vitro experiment with bone marrow derived macrophages showed that liposomal DHA was able to suppress lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response and oxidative stress. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate that incorporation of DHA in injectable liposomes is an effective way to increase the inhibitory effects of DHA on halting the progression of atherosclerosis via lowering circulating triglycerides, reducing plaque inflammation, and enhancing plaque stability. Intravenous administration of liposomal DHA may become an efficacious strategy for the treatment of atherosclerosis. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): NUSMed Seed Fund

Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide Plasma Level Influences the Effect of n-3 PUFA Supplementation

Elevated glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) levels in obesity may predict the metabolic benefits of n-3 PUFA supplementation. This placebo-controlled trial aimed to analyze fasting and postprandial GIP response to 3-month n-3 PUFA supplementation (1.8 g/d; DHA:EPA, 5:1) along with caloric restriction (1200–1500 kcal/d) in obese subjects. Compliance was confirmed by the incorporation of DHA and EPA into red blood cells (RBCs). Blood analyses of glucose, insulin, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), GIP and triglycerides were performed at fasting, and during an oral glucose tolerance test and a high fat mixed-meal tolerance test. Fatty acid composition of RBC was assessed by gas chromatography and total plasma fatty acid content and composition was measured by gas–liquid chromatography. The DHA and EPA content in RBCs significantly increased due to n-3 PUFA supplementation vs. placebo (77% vs. −3%, respectively). N-3 PUFA supplementation improved glucose tolerance and decreased circulating NEFA levels (0.750 vs. 0.615 mmol/L), as well as decreasing plasma saturated (1390 vs. 1001 µg/mL) and monounsaturated (1135 vs. 790 µg/mL) fatty acids in patients with relatively high GIP levels. The effects of n-3 PUFAs were associated with the normalization of fasting (47 vs. 36 pg/mL) and postprandial GIP levels. Obese patients with elevated endogenous GIP could be a target group for n-3 PUFA supplementation in order to achieve effects that obese patients without GIP disturbances can achieve with only caloric restriction.

In vivo biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids by the euryhaline rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis)

In order to increase omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) availability and to improve the design of rotifer's enrichment protocols for marine larvae production, the endogenous fatty acid (FA) metabolism of the marine rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis was determined. To this purpose, the in vivo ability of this species to incorporate, esterify into the different lipid classes and to elongate/desaturate unsaturated FAs was investigated. Rotifers were incubated in 75 cm2 tissue culture flasks, at a density of 75,000 rotifers per incubation, for 4 h. Incubations (n = 4) were performed at 21 °C, with 0.3 μCi of [1-14C]FAs including C18 FAs (18:1n-9, OA; 18:2n-6, LA; 18:3n-3, ALA) and LC-PUFA (20:4n-6, ARA; 20:5n-3, EPA; 22:6n-3, DHA). The present study demonstrates that rotifers possess an active metabolism over dietary FAs, being this species able to produce LC-PUFA from its C18 FA precursors. Interestingly, the action of a Δ12 desaturase that converts OA to LA and of a Δ15 desaturase over LA to produce ALA, seems to be also present, in agreement with previously reported functional characterization of ωx desaturases genes in this species. However, a globally low transformation rate was obtained, in addition to a lower incorporation of DHA into rotifer tissues compared to the other incubated substrates. The aforementioned factors, together with a competitive esterification pattern of DHA, LA and ALA into phosphatidylcholine (PC) or of EPA and ARA into phosphatidylinositol (PI), may give rise to rotifers with inadequate essential FA ratios for marine larvae nutrition, if ignored or incorrectly handled in the lipid enrichment process of this live prey species.

Efficient Enzymatic Incorporation of Dehydroalanine Based on SAMDI-Assisted Identification of Optimized Tags for OspF/SpvC.

Site-specific modification of proteins has important applications in biological research and drug development. Reactive tags such as azide, alkyne, and tetrazine have been used extensively to achieve the abovementioned goal. However, bulky side-chain "ligation scars" are often left after the labeling and may hinder the biological application of such engineered protein products. Conjugation chemistry via dehydroalanine (Dha) may provide an opportunity for "traceless" ligation because the activated alkene moiety on Dha can then serve as an electrophile to react with radicalophile, thiol/amine nucleophile, and reactive phosphine probe to introduce a minimal linker in the protein post-translational modifications. In this report, we present a mild and highly efficient enzymatic approach to incorporate Dha with phosphothreonine/serine lyases, OspF and SpvC. These lyases originally catalyze an irreversible elimination reaction that converts a doubly phosphorylated substrate with phosphothreonine (pT) or phosphoserine (pS) to dehydrobutyrine (Dhb) or Dha. To generate a simple monophosphorylated tag for these lyases, we conducted a systematic approach to profile the substrate specificity of OspF and SpvC using peptide arrays and self-assembled monolayers for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. The optimized tag, [F/Y/W]-pT/pS-[F/Y/W] (where [F/Y/W] indicates an aromatic residue), results in a ∼10-fold enhancement of the overall peptide labeling efficiency via Dha chemistry and enables the first demonstration of protein labeling as well as live cell labeling with a minimal ligation linker via enzyme-mediated incorporation of Dha.

Dynamics of DHA and EPA supplementation: incorporation into equine plasma, synovial fluid, and surfactant glycerophosphocholines.

Horses with asthma or osteoarthritis frequently receive ω-3 fatty acid supplements. Docosahexaenoic (DHA; 22:6) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5) acids are essential ω-3 fatty acid precursors of anti-inflammatory mediators and components of structural glycerophospholipids (GPL) that act as reservoirs of these fatty acids. Analysis of the incorporation of dietary DHA + EPA into GPL pools in different body compartments has not been undertaken in horses. We undertook a detailed study of dietary supplementation with DHA + EPA in horses and monitored incorporation into DHA- and EPA-containing glycerophosphocholines (GPC) 38:5, 38:6, 40:5, and 40:6 in plasma, synovial fluid (SF), and surfactant. Horses (n = 20) were randomly assigned to the supplement or control group and evaluated on days 0, 30, 60, and 90. GPC in plasma, SF, and surfactant were measured by high-resolution mass spectrometry with less than 3ppm mass error. Validation of DHA and EPA incorporation into these GPC was conducted utilizing MS2 of the [M + Cl]- adducts of GPC. Dietary supplementation resulted in augmented levels of GPC 38:5, 38:6, 40:5, and 40:6 in all compartments. Maximum incorporation into GPCs was delayed until 60days. Significant increases in the levels of GPC 38:5, 40:5, and 40:6, containing docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 22:5), also was noted. DHA and EPA supplementation results in augmented storage pools of ω-3 essential fatty acids in SF and surfactant GPC. This has the potential to improve the ability of anti-inflammatory mechanisms to resolve inflammatory pathways in these critical compartments involved in arthritis and asthma.

Membrane therapy using DHA suppresses epidermal growth factor receptor signaling by disrupting nanocluster formation

AbstractEpidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling drives the formation of many types of cancer, including colon cancer. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22∶6Δ4,7,10,13,16,19), a chemoprotective long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid suppresses EGFR signaling. However, the mechanism underlying this phenotype remains unclear. Therefore, we used super-resolution microscopy techniques to investigate the mechanistic link between EGFR function and DHA-induced alterations to plasma membrane nanodomains. Using isogenic in vitro (YAMC and IMCE mouse colonic cell lines) and in vivo (Drosophila, wild type and Fat-1 mice) models, cellular DHA enrichment via therapeutic nanoparticle delivery, endogenous synthesis, or dietary supplementation reduced EGFR-mediated cell proliferation and downstream Ras/ERK signaling. Phospholipid incorporation of DHA reduced membrane rigidity and the size of EGFR nanoclusters. Similarly, pharmacological reduction of plasma membrane phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) or cholesterol was associated with a decrease in EGFR nanocluster size. Furthermore, in DHA-treated cells only the addition of cholesterol, unlike PA or PIP2, restored EGFR nanoscale clustering. These findings reveal that DHA reduces EGFR signaling in part by reshaping EGFR proteolipid nanodomains, supporting the feasibility of using membrane therapy, i.e., dietary/drug-related strategies to target plasma membrane organization, to reduce EGFR signaling and cancer risk.

Dietary supplementation results in a significant incorporation of DHA into RBC phosphatidylcholine of non‐APOE ε4 allele but not for ε4 carriers

AbstractBackgroundAlzheimer’s Disease (AD) is commonly characterized by the accumulation of beta‐amyloid plaques in the brain causing neuroinflammation and cognitive decline. Risk for developing AD is associated with the ε4 allele of Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a cholesterol carrier involved in lipid transport and brain injury repair. Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA), an omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, has been shown to decrease ß‐amyloid production and prevent inflammation. The aim of our study is to determine whether DHA incorporation can account for the differences in the efficacy of DHA intervention in carriers of the ApoE ε4 allele (APOE ε4) compared with noncarriers (non‐APOE ε4).MethodWe supplied APOE ε4 (n = 15) and non‐APOE ε4 (n = 16) cognitively healthy (CDR ≤ 0.5) participants above the age of 55 with 2 g/day of daily fish oil supplements, for six months. Participants were randomized into either DHA‐treatment or placebo groups. We isolated red blood cells (RBCs) from participants at baseline (T0) and after six months (T6) and used LC/MS‐MS analyses to quantify phospholipid species. We isolated 44 phosphatidylcholine (PC) species and examined changes in DHA contents after supplementation.ResultWe found no significant differences in total PC across treatment groups nor between APOE ε4 and non‐APOE ε4 participants. Acyl DHA‐containing PC species (PC38a:6 and PC40a:6) increased significantly between T0 and T6 (p < 0.02 for all) non‐APOE ε4 participants. In contrast, no significant differences were seen between APOE ε4 carriers after DHA supplementation. No significant differences were found in plasmalogen PC‐DHA (PC40p:6) for any group. The ratio of PC‐DHA to PC‐containing arachidonic acid (C20:4n‐6), an omega‐6 fatty acid known to favor neurodegeneration, was significantly higher (p = 0.0008) for non‐carriers but not for ε4 carriers.ConclusionOur data shows that dietary supplementation gives specific incorporation of DHA into acyl‐PC species in RBCs of non‐APOE ε4 carriers but not for ε4 carriers. We propose that the increased risk of AD pathology of ε4 carriers may be due to the inefficient incorporation and transport of DHA. Alternative means are needed to enhance DHA incorporation and transport into blood cells of ε4 carriers to effectively combat cognitive decline even at its earliest stages.

In Vitro and In Vivo Digestibility of Soybean, Fish, and Microalgal Oils, and Their Influences on Fatty Acid Distribution in Tissue Lipid of Mice.

The digestion rates of microalgal (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, 56.8%; palmitic acid, 22.4%), fish (DHA, 10.8%; eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA, 16.2%), and soybean oils (oleic, 21.7%; linoleic acid, 54.6%) were compared by coupling the in vitro multi-step and in vivo apparent digestion models using mice. The in vitro digestion rate estimated based on the released free fatty acids content was remarkably higher in soybean and fish oils than in microalgal oil in 30 min; however, microalgal and fish oils had similar digestion rates at longer digestion. The in vivo digestibility of microalgal oil (91.49%) was lower than those of soybean (96.50%) and fish oils (96.99%). Among the constituent fatty acids of the diet oils, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) exhibited the highest digestibility, followed by EPA, DHA, palmitoleic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acid, demonstrating increased digestibility with reduced chain length and increased unsaturation degree of fatty acid. The diet oils affected the deposition of fatty acids in mouse tissues, and DHA concentrations were high in epididymal fat, liver, and brain of mice fed microalgal oil. In the present study, microalgal oil showed lower in vitro and in vivo digestibility, despite adequate DHA incorporation into major mouse organs, such as the brain and liver.

A novel n-3 glyceride mixture enhances enrichment of EPA and DHA after single dosing in healthy older adults: results from a double-blind crossover trial.

A glyceride mixture of monoglyceride, diglyceride and TAG increases solubilisation and enhances emulsification of n-3 fatty acid (FA)-containing lipids in the stomach. This allows for better access of digestive enzymes, pivotal for the release of bioactive n-3 FA. The objective was to compare the effect of a glyceride formulation and an ethyl ester formulation of EPA + DHA on concentrations of EPA and DHA in plasma following single dosing. We conducted a double-blind crossover trial in which twenty healthy adults aged 50-70 years consumed a single dose (2·8 g EPA + DHA) of each EPA + DHA formulation without a meal in random order separated by a 2-week washout period. EPA and DHA were measured in plasma total lipid over the following 12 h. EPA and DHA in plasma total lipid increased over 12 h with both formulations. A 10-fold greater Δ concentration of EPA, 3-fold greater Δ concentration of DHA and 5-fold greater Δ concentration of EPA + DHA were seen with the glyceride-EPA + DHA. The time at which the maximal concentrations of n-3 FA occurred was 4 h earlier for EPA, 1 h earlier for DHA and 2 h earlier for EPA + DHA when consuming glyceride-EPA + DHA. A mixture of monoglyceride, diglyceride and TAG results in greater and faster incorporation of EPA and DHA into blood plasma lipid in the absence of a fatty meal. This may provide benefit to individuals on a low-fat diet or with digestive impairments and could result in greater efficacy in clinical trials using n-3 FA.

Comparative effects of dietary microalgae oil and fish oil on fatty acid composition and sensory quality of table eggs

This study was conducted to investigate the comparative effects of dietary supplementation with microalgae oil or fish oil on fatty acid composition, sensory quality, and overall acceptability of table eggs. A total of six hundred thirty, 30-week-old, Hy-Line Brown laying hens were allocated to 7 dietary treatments. Layers were fed with a control diet or the control diet supplemented with graded levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 1.25, 2.50, and 5.00 mg/g feed) derived from microalgae oil or fish oil. The feeding trial lasted 10 wk. Enrichment of eggs with DHA by dietary supplementation with microalgae oil or fish oil enhanced yolk DHA and total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) enrichment and reduced n-6-to-n-3 ratio in a dose-response manner, whereas the efficiency decreased (P < 0.05). The overall efficiency of DHA incorporation into eggs was similar for the 2 sources (P > 0.05). In comparison with fish oil, dietary microalgae oil supplementation resulted in higher scores for egg flavor and overall acceptability, both of which declined linearly in response to DHA supplementation (P < 0.05). Among the aroma and flavor characteristics, fishy aroma and flavor scores increased linearly and quadratically (P < 0.05) in response to dietary DHA supplementation, and egg aroma and flavor and milky flavor scores decreased linearly (P < 0.05). The results from partial least squares analysis showed that fishy flavor and aroma were closely associated with DHA, α-linolenic acid, and total n-3 PUFA, and oleic acid, arachidonic acid, and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid were more related to egg aroma and flavor. The results suggested that microalgae oil would be more promising for egg DHA enrichment owing to better sensory quality of the resultant eggs.

Survivability and oxidative stability of co-microencapsulated L. Plantarum PTCC 1058 and DHA as a juice carrier

Lactobacillus Plantarum PTCC 1058 bacteria and DHA-rich oil were microencapsulated together or individually in an optimized alginate-pectin-gelatin biocomposite hydrogel. The survivability of L. plantarum and oxidative stability of DHA were evaluated using simulated gastrointestinal (SGI) conditions and 4 wk storage in commercial orange juice at 4 and 25 °C. The results showed that the multilayer biocomposite had significant influence on the stability of the microcapsules in terms of survivability of probiotic bacteria and oxidative stability of DHA with SGI conditions and storage at 4 and 25 °C compared to the free cells. Incorporation of probiotic bacteria and DHA showed the synergistic effect of DHA on cell survivability as less cell reduction was observed with co-microcapsules compared to probiotic microcapsules with storage in orange juice at both temperatures. Determination of peroxide values and fatty acid profiles, showed the oxygen barrier potential of the co-microcapsules could provide better stabilization for food matrices.

The Influence of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Skeletal Muscle Protein Turnover in Health, Disuse, and Disease.

Ingestion of omega-3 fatty acids is known to exert favorable health effects on a number of biological processes such as improved immune profile, enhanced cognition, and optimized neuromuscular function. Recently, data have emerged demonstrating a positive influence of omega-3 fatty acid intake on skeletal muscle. For instance, there are reports of clinically-relevant gains in muscle size and strength in healthy older persons with omega-3 fatty acid intake as well as evidence that omega-3 fatty acid ingestion alleviates the loss of muscle mass and prevents decrements in mitochondrial respiration during periods of muscle-disuse. Cancer cachexia that is characterized by a rapid involuntary loss of lean mass may also be attenuated by omega-3 fatty acid provision. The primary means by which omega-3 fatty acids positively impact skeletal muscle mass is via incorporation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n−3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n−3) into membrane phospholipids of the sarcolemma and intracellular organelles. Enrichment of EPA and DHA in these membrane phospholipids is linked to enhanced rates of muscle protein synthesis, decreased expression of factors that regulate muscle protein breakdown, and improved mitochondrial respiration kinetics. However, exactly how incorporation of EPA and DHA into phospholipid membranes alters these processes remains unknown. In this review, we discuss the interaction between omega-3 fatty acid ingestion and skeletal muscle protein turnover in response to nutrient provision in younger and older adults. Additionally, we examine the role of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in protecting muscle loss during muscle-disuse and in cancer cachexia, and critically evaluate the molecular mechanisms that underpin the phenotypic changes observed in skeletal muscle with omega-3 fatty acid intake.

Impact of Arachidonic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation on Tissue Fatty Acid Incorporation in the Young Pig (P09-009-19)

ObjectivesDocosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are conditionally essential fatty acids (FA) commonly supplemented in human infant formulas due to insufficient endogenous synthesis. Supplementation of these FA has been shown to yield FA profiles closer to those of a breastfed infant. The need for DHA supplementation in infant formula has been well-establish due to its positive influence on retinal and cognitive health. However, ARA supplementation recommendations have come under some scrutiny. This study aimed to use the neonatal piglet model to examine the impact of single and dual supplementation of ARA and DHA on tissue FA incorporation. MethodsForty-eight male pigs were provided one of four dietary treatments ad libitum (n = 12 per treatment) from postnatal day 2 to 30. Dietary treatments included the following target ARA and DHA levels expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids: Diet 1 – Control (devoid of ARA and DHA), Diet 2 – 0.8% ARA, Diet 3 – 0.8% DHA, Diet 4 – 0.8% ARA + 0.8% DHA. Growth and food intake were measured daily. Plasma, red blood cells (RBC), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) were collected at study conclusion for FA analysis. ResultsThere were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between diet groups in food intake and overall growth. Pigs on diet 1 had lower (P < 0.001) ARA than those on diet 2 in the PFC, plasma, and RBC. Pigs on diet 3 had lower incorporation of ARA than those on diet 1 in the PFC (P < 0.001) and RBC (P = 0.03). Pigs on diet 4 had lower incorporation of ARA than those on diet 2 in the PFC (P < 0.001), plasma (P < 0.01), and RBC (P = 0.01). Pigs on diet 1 had lower (P < 0.001) DHA levels than those on diet 3 in the PFC, plasma, and RBC. There were no significant differences in DHA levels (P > 0.05) between diet 1 and diet 2 in PFC, plasma, or RBC. Pigs on diet 4 had lower incorporation (P < 0.01) of DHA than those on diet 3 in the PFC and plasma. ConclusionsThese results show that PFC, RBC, and plasma ARA and DHA levels are sensitive to dietary intake when compared to diets devoid of these fatty acids. Results also indicate that endogenous ARA levels in the PFC and RBC are reduced when only DHA supplementation is provided in the absence of dietary ARA, hence the supplementation of ARA when DHA is provided may be warranted for maintenance of ARA concentrations in these tissues. Funding SourcesDSM Nutritional Products.

Postprandial incorporation of EPA and DHA from transgenic Camelina sativa oil into blood lipids is equivalent to that from fish oil in healthy humans.

EPA and DHA are important components of cell membranes. Since humans have limited ability for EPA and DHA synthesis, these must be obtained from the diet, primarily from oily fish. Dietary EPA and DHA intakes are constrained by the size of fish stocks and by food choice. Seed oil from transgenic plants that synthesise EPA and DHA represents a potential alternative source of these fatty acids, but this has not been tested in humans. We hypothesised that incorporation of EPA and DHA into blood lipids from transgenic Camelina sativa seed oil (CSO) is equivalent to that from fish oil. Healthy men and women (18-30 years or 50-65 years) consumed 450 mg EPA + DHA from either CSO or commercial blended fish oil (BFO) in test meals in a double-blind, postprandial cross-over trial. There were no significant differences between test oils or sexes in EPA and DHA incorporation into plasma TAG, phosphatidylcholine or NEFA over 8 h. There were no significant differences between test oils, age groups or sexes in postprandial VLDL, LDL or HDL sizes or concentrations. There were no significant differences between test oils in postprandial plasma TNFα, IL 6 or 10, or soluble intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 concentrations in younger participants. These findings show that incorporation into blood lipids of EPA and DHA consumed as CSO was equivalent to BFO and that such transgenic plant oils are a suitable dietary source of EPA and DHA in humans.