Income-related Factors Research Articles

Crossroads of Choice: A qualitative study of the factors influencing decisions to transition from sex work among women engaged in sex work in Southern Uganda.

Background Women Engaged in commercial Sex Work (WESW) are exposed to behavioral, biological, and structural factors that exacerbate their risk to HIV infection and other sexually transmitted infections. While commercial sex work may appear voluntary, WESW are more likely to be constrained to selling sex due to limited viable alternatives. To effectively support this vulnerable group of women, it is critical to understand factors that facilitate and impede their decisions to transition from sex work into other careers or jobs. The current study explored women's decision to transition from sex work into other careers or jobs. Methods Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 53 WESW aged 20-47 enrolled within a larger study-Kyaterekera study, a randomized clinical trial (N = 542) implemented in 19 HIV hotspots in the Southern region of Uganda. Participants were selected based on their intervention attendance (high/medium/low attendance). The interviews were conducted in Luganda the widely spoken language in the study area to explore the factors influencing women's decisions to from transition from sex work to other jobs or careers. The main interview question used for this study was, "What are some of the factors that may influence whether you would transition from sex work to other jobs or vocations?". All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated into English. Thematic analysis in Dedoose software was used to analyze the data. Results Participants reported three primary types of decisions, including considering leaving sex work, deciding to leave, and continuing sex work. The emerging themes from the interviews were categorized into individual and structural level facilitators and barriers to leave sex work. Individual level factors included issues of stigma, discrimination, and aging as factors that facilitated women's decision to leave sex work. At the structural level, factors which include interpersonal stigma and discrimination (from immediate family and community members), physical and sexual violence and income related factors were identified as facilitators and barriers to leaving sex work. Conclusion Our study highlights the complex decision-making processes among WESW as they navigate transitions to alternative jobs or careers. By advocating for multifaceted interventions and policies tailored to the diverse challenges faced by WESW, our study contributes to a more informed approach to supporting their transition out of sex work.

Evolutionary game analysis of vehicle procurement in the courier industry from the perspective of green supply chain

In the contemporary era, green development has become integral to modern industrial supply chains. Accelerating the green transformation of the supply chain in the express delivery industry poses a significant challenge in China. To address this challenge, we establish a trilateral evolutionary game model that considers the interdependent constraints involving the government, vehicle suppliers, and courier companies. This model aims to explore the optimal stable decisions for each stakeholder and the entire supply chain system. Through numerical simulations, we analyze the impact of key parameters on the stability of strategies and find that there are four Evolutionary Stable Strategies (ESS) in the system. Economic factors play a dual role: income-related factors encourage the adoption of green strategies by stakeholders, whereas cost-related factors extend the time required for stakeholders to transition to green strategies. For sustained production and utilization of new energy vehicles, the government must utilize a balanced system of rewards and penalties effectively. Vehicle suppliers and courier companies should collaborate for mutually beneficial outcomes, jointly fostering the green transformation of the supply chain with a focus on cost reduction and efficiency improvement. This study offers theoretical insights and methodological support for decision-makers in green supply chain management.

Factors Associated with Primary Care Provider's Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in China: A Machine Learning-Based Random Forest Analysis.

The objective of the study is to explore the factors that influence the job satisfaction and organizational commitment of primary care providers in China, with a focus on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the rescission of restriction policies. We utilized the 20-item Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) and the 25-item organizational commitment survey to assess job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In total, 435 valid responses were included in our analysis. The average scores for job satisfaction and organizational commitment were 80.6 and 90.8. After a two-step tuning process, we built random forest models by machine learning. The results show income change, working years, working years in the current institute, and age were the four most important features associated with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and most of their dimensions. The number of professional fields engaged, gender, job status, and types of endowment insurance were least associated. During pandemic time, income-related factors remain a core concern for primary care providers, whereas job security may lose its importance. These findings suggest that financial bonuses may be an effective way to boost morale, and age-specific motivation plans may be necessary.

Perinatal nicotine exposure relates to stimulus-locked event-related potentials in early adolescence during an emotional go/no-go task

Nicotine exposure is associated with negative consequences on the developing brain, both in utero and after birth. We investigated the relationship between perinatal nicotine exposure and electroencephalographic brain activity recorded during an emotional faces Go/No-Go task among adolescents. Seventy-one adolescents aged 12–15 years completed a Go/No-Go task using fearful and happy faces. Parents completed questionnaire measures of their child's temperament and self-regulation and retrospectively reported on nicotine exposure during the perinatal period. Perinatally exposed children (n = 20) showed increased and prolonged frontal event-related potential (ERP) differentiation in stimulus-locked analyses; that is, greater emotion and condition differentiation in comparison with their non-exposed peers (n = 51). However, non-exposed children showed greater late emotion differentiation recorded over posterior sites. Response-locked ERP differences were not found. ERP effects were not related to temperamental, self-regulatory, or parental education and income-related factors. This study is the first to demonstrate a relationship between perinatal nicotine exposure and ERPs in an emotional Go/No-Go task among adolescents. Findings suggest that while conflict detection remains intact for adolescents with perinatal nicotine exposure, their attentional allocation to behaviourally relevant stimuli may be magnified to beyond optimal levels, particularly when emotion is salient in information processing. Future studies can extend these findings by isolating prenatal nicotine exposure and comparing its effects to isolated postnatal exposure and clarifying the implications of the face and performance processing differences in adolescence.

OR28-5 Widening Economic Disparity in Rates of Readmissions Following Hospitalizations for Hyperglycemic Emergencies Among US Adults over a Decade.

Abstract Introduction Hyperglycemic emergencies, including diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS), are common reasons for hospitalization among adults with diabetes. Household income is a known determinant of health and impacts access to medications and health services. Outpatient services and medications impact readmission rates as medication nonadherence and inadequate follow-up are common underlying precipitants of DKA and HHS. This study outlined the trends in readmissions following initial hospitalization for hyperglycemic emergencies. Methods This was a longitudinal trend analysis of the National Readmission Database (NRD), which is the largest readmission database in the US. The study period was from 2010 to 2018, and involved adults with DKA and HHS as the principal discharge diagnosis. We excluded elective and December admissions. Using the unique visit linkage variable within the NRD, we estimated the 30-day all-cause readmission rate (30ACR) stratified by the median household income for the patient's zip code quartile (MHOI). Outcomes included comparing trends in 30ACR in DKA and HHS between the low-income quartile (LIQ) and high-income quartile (HIQ) as well as trends in 30-day DKA and HHS specific readmission rates between the LIQ and HIQ. We estimated the estimated annual percent change (APC) via logistic trend regression adjusted for age categories, sex, and MHOI. Results From 2010 to 2018, there was a trend towards increasing readmission rates overall. Among DKA hospitalizations, patients in the LIQ had a higher 30ACR compared to the HIQ (17.1% vs 12.3% in 2010 and 21.7% vs 15.3% in 2018). The LIQ patients also had a higher DKA-specific readmission rate over the period (7.2% vs 5.1% in 2010 and 7.6% vs 10.4% in 2018). The adjusted APC for DKA 30ACR was 1.6%, with the overall odds of readmission higher in the LIQ (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.50, 95% CI: 1.42 - 1.58, p<0.001) compared to the HIQ. Among HHS hospitalizations, patients in the LIQ had a higher 30ACR compared to the HIQ (12.2% vs 10.4% in 2010 and 14.8% vs 12.4% in 2018). The LIQ patients also had a higher HHS-specific readmission rate over the period (0.8% vs 0.6% in 2010 and 1.2% vs 1.1% in 2018). The adjusted APC for HHS 30ACR was 1.9%, with the overall odds of readmission higher in the LIQ (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.13, 95% CI: 1.02 - 1.26, p=0.025) compared to the HIQ. Conclusion There seem to be rising readmission rates following hyperglycemic emergency hospitalizations with significant disparity based on median household income. This difference is was higher DKA. Though the study design limits the elaboration on specific income-related factors that are at play, these findings establish the need for further exploring the barriers that predispose patients to readmissions to decrease healthcare utilization costs. Presentation: Tuesday, June 14, 2022 10:45 a.m. - 11:00 a.m.

Policy Cognition, Household Income and Farmers’ Satisfaction: Evidence from a Wetland Ecological Compensation Project in the Poyang Lake Area at the Micro Level

The paper follows a field survey of 773 rural households in 14 towns in five prefectures (cities and districts) around the Poyang Lake, and uses a multivariate ordered logistic model to explore the factors influencing satisfaction with wetland ecological compensation policies (WECPs) from the perspective of rural households’ subjective cognition of WECPs and income factors. The research shows the following. (1) the overall score for satisfaction of farmers with WECPs is 3.56, which indicates satisfaction between “fair” and “fairly satisfied,” and there is room for policy optimization. (2) The subjective cognition of policies and the income-related factors have significant impacts on the satisfaction of farmers with WECPs. Among them, cognition of policy objectives, evaluation of compensation rates, timely distribution of compensations, government supervision, changes in household incomes and importance of compensation on households all have significant positive influences on policy satisfaction. (3) The degree of education, the proportion of household labor forces and the proportion of household non-agricultural incomes have a significant positive impact on the policy satisfaction of farmers. Therefore, in future policy implementation, we should strengthen publicity and guidance of the policy, raise compensation rates appropriately, strengthen government supervision, pay attention to rural livelihood, and establish an ecological compensation mechanism featuring fairness and long-term effectiveness.

Analysis of Climate and Income-Related Factors for High Regional Child Drowning Mortality in China.

Objectives: To assess the relationship between regional climatic factors and child drowning in China. Methods: Provincial age-specific drowning rate, climatic and income data were collected. We conducted a geographically weighted regression to evaluate the association between drowning and climatic factors. A generalized additive model was used to comprise a bivariate term with which to investigate the interaction of environmental risk factors and whether such interactions influence drowning mortality. Results: In southern China, an abundance of water systems and increased precipitation, as well as hotter and longer summers, lead to significantly higher drowning compared with that in northern China. Long summers and low economic performance in parts of Xinjiang were key factors for its high drowning mortality rate. Linear and nonlinear joint effects were observed between the risk factors of drowning. Conclusion: Different regions should use adaptive measures to reduce drowning risks, for example, communication campaigns during the summer period or when the weather changes.

Which veterans in the Supportive Services for Veteran Families program receive temporary financial assistance and why: a mixed methods study

ABSTRACT The VA Supportive Services for Veteran Families (SSVF) program is one of the largest housing assistance programs in the US. One of the key components of this program is temporary financial assistance (TFA) which can be used for rent, security deposits, utilities, and other housing-related expenses. The objective of this paper was to identify characteristics of SSVF enrollees that are associated with receiving any TFA and the amount of TFA received. We conducted a mixed methods study which included a retrospective cohort study of Veterans who entered the SSVF program between 10/2015 and 9/2018 and interviews with 20 SSVF grantee employees. Important characteristics that were positively associated with TFA included African American race, female sex, having a spouse or partner, number of children, education, employment, monthly income, and receiving VA healthcare services. Factors negatively associated with receiving any TFA or the amount of TFA included older age, Medicaid insurance, previous homelessness, and a mental illness diagnosis. Interviews with grantee employees revealed that income-related factors were by far the most influential determinant of whether to give TFA and the amount of TFA to give Veterans enrolling in SSVF.

An empirical study of the factors that motivate Sri Lankan professionals to migrate to Qatar

ABSTRACT Traditionally, countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have been the most preferred destination for professional migrants from Sri Lanka. However, with the boom in the petroleum industry of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in the 1970s, the Gulf has increasingly become an appealing destination for Sri Lankan professional migrants. Among Gulf countries, Qatar is the most common destination. A combination of various factors motivates highly-skilled Sri Lankan workers to migrate to the GCC in general and Qatar in particular. The primary objective of this paper is to analyse these factors. The study is based on primary data gathered via in-depth interviews with 12 key informants and an online survey of 125 professionals. The sample for the questionnaire was selected using a combination of non-probability methods and the data gathered was analysed using a mixed methodology. The study identifies that among the numerous factors that influence Sri Lankan professionals to migrate to the GCC, the tax-free salary which the respondents believe to be higher than the disposable income they can earn in OECD countries is the primary reason for migrating to a Gulf country over OECD countries. The study also identifies that whereas quality-of-life-related factors play a key role in the migration decision to OECD countries, income-related factors are the most crucial in migrating to GCC nations.

Family Dynamics of Child Care in Korea: Strategies to Relieving the Gap Between Mother’s Actual and Preferred Hours of Care

This study examines the dynamics of family management for child care in Korea by measuring the gap between a mother’s actual and preferred hours of care. We assumed that there was a significant discrepancy between actual hours and preferred hours spent caring for young children. This gap, a deviation from preferred amount of care hours, may contribute to a mother’s psychological stress or emotional frustration, and it is therefore crucial to be able to manage time or financial resources in order to reduce the discrepancy. The study employed data of Korean mothers who are the primary caregivers to their young children (age 0–9) from the 2018 Family Survey for Child Care (n = 484). Preliminary analyses revealed that mothers tended to spend more hours than they would choose to, on child care. The study finds that the working mothers were not very different from non-working mothers in experiencing the gap in care time. We found that the elderly parents’ time and resources could play a significant role in decreasing it. This study also showed that income-related factors, household income, mother’s income contribution, and mother’s autonomy for income management were the most crucial factors in reducing the gap between actual amount of care time and preferred amount of care time.

Occupational Stress among Orthodontists in Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACTAim:The aim of this study was to identify potential occupational stressors among orthodontists practicing in Saudi Arabia, and to evaluate their relationship to personal and professional characteristics.Materials and Methods:Using a validated occupational stress assessment (OSA) questionnaire, demographic information and data pertaining to potential occupational stressors and professional characteristics of the participants were collected. The OSA questionnaire was adopted and modified based on Cooper et al. classification of potential stressors. To assure anonymity of the protocol, the respondents were given the OSA questionnaire at their clinical settings or scientific meetings and requested to return the filled copy of the questionnaire without any personal disclosures. The severity of stressors was assessed using a five-point Likert scale, and individual scores were summed to obtain the overall severity score. The collected data were coded, tabulated, and analyzed using statistical software.Results:Samples of 253 orthodontists were evaluated with a response rate of 82.6% (209) and a higher proportion of male participants (75.1%). The mean severity score for stress was higher among orthodontists of age less than 30 years when compared with those more than 50 years of age (F = 3.486; P = 0.017). Similarly, the mean severity score was higher among orthodontists who had completed their residency program in Saudi Arabia, Arab countries, and Asian countries (F = 5.425; P < 0.0001). Further categorization of the stressors based on patient-, time-, staff-, work-, referral-, and income-related factors were carried out. Although patient-related factors (mean = 3.38) were considered the most stressful, referral- and income-related factors (mean = 2.39) were considered the least stressful.Conclusion:Pronounced variation was evident in assessing the potential stressors among orthodontists. Nevertheless, time management and proper patient education can address the most concerning stressors among orthodontists in Saudi Arabia.

An Exploratory Study on a Relationship between Changes in Cultivated Area of Major Crops and Farm Income by regions1 - From Comparative Analysis to Optimal Portfolio Analysis -

This study is exploratory research on a relationship between changes in cultivated area of major crops and farm income by regions. We investigated level of income, volatility of income, and migration of suitable region by climate changes as factors influencing changes in cultivated area. Research processes are as follows. First, we classify the regions where cultivated areas are expanded or reduced through the trends of cultivated area by region and crop during recent 10 years. Second, we compare the changes in income related factors between groups during the same periods. Finally, the results from portfolio analysis show changes in stable income-based optimal crops. From these procedures, we found that the changes in cultivated area are not simply explained by income-related factors. In cases of vegetables, however, we also found that high volatility of income could contribute to reduce cultivated area of the crops. The results from portfolio analysis are not always consistent in all of cases. This means that crop selection can be decided by other factors than stable income.

Relative Income and Subjective Wellbeing: Intra-National and Inter-National Comparisons by Settlement and Country Type

We extend the Easterlin Paradox (EP) literature in two key respects, testing whether inter-national as well as intra-national income comparisons matter for subjective wellbeing, and testing whether these effects differ by settlement-type as well as by country-type. We confirm the intra-national EP predictions (that subjective wellbeing is left unchanged by an equi-proportionate rise in all intra-country incomes) across four developed country settlement types ranging from rural areas to large cities. The EP result also holds for rural areas in transitional countries but not for larger settlement sizes in those countries. For all country-settlement types, we confirm the importance also of inter-national income comparisons in determining people’s subjective wellbeing. Again, however, the effect is less prominent in larger transitional country cities. We also show that once we control for personal characteristics and income-related factors, we cannot reject the presence of a spatial equilibrium in life satisfaction. Our results indicate that each individual government that wishes to raise the life satisfaction of its residents still needs to boost those residents’ incomes in order to raise their subjective wellbeing. However, at least amongst developed countries, this practice results in an international Prisoners Dilemma in which mean life satisfaction stays stable despite rising global incomes.

Risk factors for homelessness among US veterans.

Homelessness among US veterans has been a focus of research for over 3 decades. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this is the first systematic review to summarize research on risk factors for homelessness among US veterans and to evaluate the evidence for these risk factors. Thirty-one studies published from 1987 to 2014 were divided into 3 categories: more rigorous studies, less rigorous studies, and studies comparing homeless veterans with homeless nonveterans. The strongest and most consistent risk factors were substance use disorders and mental illness, followed by low income and other income-related factors. There was some evidence that social isolation, adverse childhood experiences, and past incarceration were also important risk factors. Veterans, especially those who served since the advent of the all-volunteer force, were at greater risk for homelessness than other adults. Homeless veterans were generally older, better educated, and more likely to be male, married/have been married, and to have health insurance coverage than other homeless adults. More studies simultaneously addressing premilitary, military, and postmilitary risk factors for veteran homelessness are needed. This review identifies substance use disorders, mental illness, and low income as targets for policies and programs in efforts to end homelessness among veterans.

Prospects of Rural Transformation Centre (RTC) of Malaysia from the Perspective of Inclusive Rural Development

In the contemporary discourse, it is argued that the ultimate objective of rural development is to improve the quality of life for rural people. This makes it essential to go beyond the incomerelated factors of rural development. Inclusive Rural Development, a more specific concept than the concept of conventional rural development, accommodates the variables for the quality of life in rural development. This concept covers three different but interrelated dimensions: economic dimension, social dimension and political dimension. Rural Transformation Centre (RTC), implemented by the government of Malaysia, is among the third generation of the rural development programmes in the country. RTC is a site to implement some integrated initiatives for the rural communities within 100 kilometre radius of the sites. There are eight major initiatives under the RTC implementation programmes, which are: training of rural population; setting up of 1Malaysia information kiosks; high-value agriculture initiatives; agro-food products processing; agricultural produce supply chain management; university cooperation; food safety and pharmaceuticals services; and rural population financial facilities. RTC brings a unique opportunity for members of the rural communities to benefit from a myriad of initiatives and activities related to their livelihood and wellbeing within the same premises. Despite some challenges, this programme has enormous potentials to address many important aspects of rural development. Based on review of relevant literature and field visits, this paper attempts to examine the prospects of the RTC concept of Malaysia in light of the theory of Inclusive Rural Development. The findings of this paper will help relevant governmental and nongovernmental bodies and researchers gain an insight about the potentials and challenges of RTC for further improving the quality of life for the rural communities.

Drug spend and acquisitive offending by substance misusers

AimThe need to generate income to fund drug misuse is assumed to be a driver of involvement in acquisitive crime. We examined the influence of drug misuse expenditure, and other factors, on acquisitive offending. MethodsClients (N=1380) seeking drug treatment within 94 of 149 Drug Action Teams (DATs) across England completed a comprehensive survey, incorporating validated scales and self-report measures, such as levels of drug and alcohol use and offending. ResultsForty per cent (N=554) had committed acquisitive crime in the previous month. Regression analysis showed that acquisitive offending was associated with the presence of problematic use of crack cocaine, poly-drug use, sharing injecting equipment, unsafe sex, overdose risk, higher drug spend, unemployment, reduced mental wellbeing, and younger age. ConclusionsRates of acquisitive crime among drug users are high. Drug using offenders can be distinguished from drug using non-offenders by problematic crack cocaine use, younger age, income-related factors, and indicators of a chaotic life style and complex needs. Behavioural and demographic factors were associated more strongly with acquisitive crime than drug use expenditure, suggesting that the need to finance drug use is not necessarily the main factor driving acquisitive offending by drug users.

Gender-Specific Effects of Unemployment on Family Formation: A Cross-National Perspective

This paper investigates the impact of unemployment on the propensity to start a family. Unemployment is accompanied by bad occupational prospects and impending economic deprivation, placing the well-being of a future family at risk. I analyze unemployment at the intersection of state-dependence and the reduced opportunity costs of parenthood, distinguishing between men and women across a set of welfare states. Using micro-data from the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), I apply event history methods to analyze longitudinal samples of first-birth transitions in France, Finland, Germany, and the UK (1994-2001). The results highlight spurious negative effects of unemployment on family formation among men, which can be attributed to the lack of breadwinner capabilities in the inability to financially support a family. Women, in contrast, show positive effects of unemployment on the propensity to have a first child in all countries except France. These effects prevail even after controlling for labour market and income-related factors. The findings are pronounced in Germany and the UK where work-family conflicts are the cause of high opportunity costs of motherhood, and the gender-specific division of labour is still highly traditional. Particularly among women with a moderate and low level of education, unemployment clearly increases the likelihood to have a first child.

The Prevalence of Diabetes Among Overweight and Obese Individuals is Higher in Poorer than in Richer Neighbourhoods

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE Diabetes is increasing in prevalence worldwide. This study investigated whether the elevated prevalence of diabetes in lower-income neighbourhoods could be explained by higher rates of overweight and obesity. METHODS A total of 7434 patients who attended respiratory clinics in 2 Ontario cities were linked to administrative databases to ascertain diagnoses of diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Body mass index (BMI) was obtained from clinic databases and median neighbourhood income from the Canadian census. Prevalence ratios were estimated by log-linear multiple binary regression. RESULTS BMI and neighbourhood income were independently associated with the prevalence of diabetes. At any level of BMI, subjects living in richer neighbourhoods were less likely to have been diagnosed with diabetes than subjects in poorer neighbourhoods. CONCLUSION In addition to body weight, neighbourhood income-related factors are associated with the risk of diabetes. These may include diet, physical activity and pollution exposures. Additional etiologic research is required to explain the income-related differential. From a resource perspective, the health care system will need to invest resources in low-income neighbourhoods to provide counselling and treatment for those individuals at risk for diabetes or for those already diagnosed.

The gender gap in musculoskeletal-related long-term sickness absence in Norway.

To examine the gender differences in long-term (> 14 days) sickness absence due to musculoskeletal health problems. Analysis of data from the National Sickness Benefit Register, 1994. The economically active population in Norway, except civil servants (n = 1,978,030). All persons, 16-66 years old, with long-term sickness absence episodes due to musculoskeletal health problems in 1994 (n = 141,839). Cumulative incidence, episode frequency, and episode duration of sickness absence. Women had higher cumulative incidence of sickness absence than men-80.6 pr 1,000 vs. 64.1 pr 1,000, and longer mean duration of episodes-94 calendar days vs. 86 days counted from the first day of absence. Episode frequency did not differ between the genders. After adjustment for age and income the gender ratio (men/women) in cumulative incidence changed from 0.80 to 1.08, and in mean duration from 0.91 to 0.96. Long-term sickness absence due to musculoskeletal health problems was strongly associated with gender, age, income, and diagnosis. Multivariate analysis indicated that the large gender differences in sickness absence might be overstated due to lack of adjustment for income and income-related factors.

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF DEVELOPMENT GRANTS IN INDONESIA'S WATER SUPPLY SECTOR

Over successive five-year development plans, Indonesia has channeled large sums of foreign loans and domestic funds into water supply projects with the aim of providing clean water for a majority of households. Most projects have been planned and financed through the central government's public works ministry, though a growing share of rural water projects are being funded through earmarked grants provided to local governments. This paper examines how these central government transfers, in the aggregate, have responded to various indicators of expenditure needs. Overall, past allocations have matched existing demand and supply levels closely–funding has generally favored provinces with large populations, large numbers of water enterprises, extensive distribution networks in place, and high production capacity. They have not, however, worked in favor of either equalization or economic productivity objectives, as reflected by per capita income or GRDP growth rates. This analysis suggests that equity would be promoted either by including income-related factors in future block grant allocation formulas or by shifting funding emphasis in the water supply sector from grants-in-kind controlled by the central government to sectoral grants controlled mainly at the local level. Such policy reforms would also further promote the nation's professed goal of decentralizing infrastructure development.