Including Information Processing Speed Research Articles

Effects of Ramadan on cognitive functions in young boys.

Fasting during Ramadan involves abstaining from food and drink from dawn to sunset, potentially influencing cognitive functions essential for the intellectual development of the youth. Therefore, understanding the effects of fasting on these functions in children/adolescents provides valuable perspectives to enhance education and promote mental well-being. However, studies on children/adolescents in this context are still limited. To evaluate the impact of Ramadan fasting on cognitive functions, including information processing speed, inhibition, decision-making, and auditory attention processes among children and adolescents aged 11 to 15 years. This study was conducted with 24 healthy children/adolescents (aged 12.84 ± 0.69 years). The experimental protocol consisted of two sessions: Before-Ramadan (BR) and at the beginning of the second week of Ramadan (R2). At each session, the boys were randomly tested on simple reaction time (SRT), choice reaction time (CRT), negative priming reaction time (NPRT), and auditory discrimination (P300). The tests were administered and scored by the same person in the different sessions. The study found that Ramadan fasting did not have an effect on various reaction times or on electro-physiological data, including P300 amplitude and latency. The current study, conducted with healthy children/adolescents, indicates that Ramadan fasting had no impact on various reaction times (SRT, CRT, NPRT), suggesting the preservation of information processing speed and decision-making, even in the face of increased task complexity. This is evident, on the one hand, through the maintenance of the ability to react to unexpected events, and, on the other hand, through the mastery of resistance to automatism, thus reflecting the preservation of inhibitory function (NPRT). Regarding P300 data, the absence of changes in latencies and amplitudes suggests that Ramadan fasting did not alter either the evaluation time of auditory stimuli or auditory attention processes.

Building the Research Path for Identifying and Validating Cognition‐related Digital Biomarkers

AbstractBackgroundCognitive dysfunction is a core feature of dementia spectrum disorders but simple screening tests are less sensitive to detect the deficits, especially in the very early stage of disease course using most standardized test instruments. This results in delayed discovery of disease onset and opportunity for early interventions that might be more effective in delaying or arresting progression. Digital phenotyping using a combination or hardware and software solutions provide potentially much more effective tools for helping clinicians identify subtle signs of cognition deficits and track them in a compressed timeline to confirm the accuracy of decreasing slope indicative of a neurodegenerative etiology.MethodsBeginning in 2017, 1,866 participants were recruited from the Dementia Center, Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan and will be invited to use a smartphone application to collect digital phenotypes including information processing speed, response accuracy, error detection, and multitasking capacity and vocal patterns, such as speech pitch, tone, rhythm. Additionally, four groups of 100 new participants each will be recruited; cognitive unimpaired (CU), subjective cognitive decline (SCD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and mild dementia. In addition to the smartphone applications, these 400 participants will undergo additional testing that include the cognitive abilities screening instrument (CASI), Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR), Cookie Theft Picture Description, Eye Tracking Test, and gait/balance.ResultsDigital phenotyping profiles will be constructed for the cohort and validated against the smaller sample to determine those metrics that can serve as actual digital biomarkers. For the smaller sample, additional multi‐dimensional profiles will be constructed that add gait parameters (step length, stride length, step width, foot angle) and eye‐tracking (visual fixation changes, speed, duration) and determine to what extent they increase differential diagnostic accuracy.ConclusionsDigital assessment tools can be used for detecting changes in cognitively related behaviors associated with preclinical and early stage clinical dementia. Future research is needed to confirm the efficacy of these digital phenotypes to serve as digital biomarkers that have high prognostic and diagnostic accuracy.

Attempt to create a digital attention screening test I

The paper-version D-CAT (digit cancellation test) was developed in 2001 and distributed widely. Pap. D-CAT was developed to provide a highly practical and user-friendly assessment of various aspects of prefrontal cortex functioning, including information processing speed, the ability to focus attention, and executive functioning. As part of the attempt to develop a digital-based D-CAT, in addition to the paper-based, an attempt was made to examine the reliability of the prototype (Dig. D-CAT) by comparing it with paper-based D-CAT. The reliabilities of Pap. D-CAT and Dig. D-CAT were evaluated using a test-retest paradigm. The reliability coefficient was lower for Dig. D-CAT than for Pap. D-CAT. The reliability coefficient for Pap. D-CAT was sufficiently high, and that for Dig. D-CAT had a reasonable level of correlation. The musculoskeletal load of stylus pressure control on the tablet screen may be the cause of the difference, and further verification is necessary.

Measures of Thalamic Integrity are Associated with Cognitive Functioning in Fingolimod-treated Multiple Sclerosis Patients

Background: Cognitive impairment is common in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and multiple domains are affected, including information processing speed, episodic memory, and executive function. Damage to the thalamus appears to be related to cognitive functioning in MS. Fingolimod is a disease-modifying therapy for RRMS, which has been shown to have a protective effect on thalamic volume. Objective: To determine the relationship between cognitive measures and the thalamus in fingolimod-treated RRMS patients and healthy controls using ultra high-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods: Fingolimod-treated RRMS and healthy participants were recruited from a single center to undergo neuropsychological testing and 7 tesla MRI. These assessments were performed at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. The neuropsychological testing included the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMTR), the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), the Selective Reminding Test (SRT), and the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (DKEFS). MRI metrics included thalamic volume, thalamic myelin density, thalamic axon density, T2 lesion volume, brain parenchymal fraction, and cortical thickness. Mixed-effects linear regression was used to determine the relationship between MRI parameters and neuropsychological test performance over time. Rates of change in patients and controls were compared using two-sample t-tests. Results: We enrolled 15 RRMS patients and 5 healthy controls. Controls performed better than patients at baseline, but this difference was only significant for the letter fluency subtest of the DKEFS and for long-term storage as assessed by the SRT. Thalamic volume and thalamic myelin density were significantly associated with visuospatial (BVMTR) and verbal memory (SRT). Thalamic volume alone was also associated with inhibitory control (Color word interference subtest of the DKEFS) and cognitive flexibility (Number letter switching subtest of the DKEFS), whereas thalamic myelin density alone was associated with semantic knowledge (Verbal fluency subtest of the DKEFS). There were no significant changes in the rates of change in neurometric test performance or MRI metrics between patients and controls from baseline to 6 months and baseline to 12 months. Conclusions: Thalamic injury is associated with cognitive performance in several domains. Fingolimod-treated RRMS patients evolved similarly to healthy controls over one year with regards to neuropsychological test performance and changes on MRI.

Oxygen: The Rate-Limiting Factor for Episodic Memory Performance, Even in Healthy Young Individuals.

Cognition is a crucial element of human functionality. Like any other physical capability, cognition is both enabled and limited by tissue biology. The aim of this study was to investigate whether oxygen is a rate-limiting factor for any of the main cognitive domains in healthy young individuals. Fifty-six subjects were randomly assigned to either increased oxygen supply using hyperbaric oxygen (two atmospheres of 100% oxygen) or to a “sham” treatment (a simulation of increased pressure in a chamber with normal air). While in the chamber, participants went through a battery of tests evaluating the major cognitive domains including information processing speed, episodic memory, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and attention. The results demonstrated that from all evaluated cognitive domains, a statistically significant improvement was found in the episodic memory of the hyper-oxygenized group. The hyper-oxygenized group demonstrated a better learning curve and a higher resilience to interference. To conclude, oxygen delivery is a rate-limiting factor for memory function even in healthy young individuals under normal conditions. Understanding the biological limitations of our cognitive functions is important for future development of interventional tools that can be used in daily clinical practice.

Neurocognitive functioning in patients with conversion disorder/functional neurological disorder.

Neurocognitive symptoms are common in individuals with somatic symptom and related disorders (SSRD), but little is known about the specific impairments in neurocognitive domains in patients with conversion disorder (CD)/functional neurological disorder (FND). This study examines neurocognitive functioning in patients with CD/FND compared to patients with other SSRD. The sample consisted of 318 patients. Twenty‐nine patients were diagnosed with CD/FND, mean age 42.4, standard deviation (SD) = 13.8 years, 79.3% women, and 289 patients had other SSRD (mean age 42.1, SD = 13.3, 60.2% women). Patients completed a neuropsychological test battery that addressed a broad range of neurocognitive domains, including information processing speed, attention and executive functioning. Patients with CD/FND had clinically significant neurocognitive deficits in all neurocognitive domains based on normative data comparison. Patients with CD/FND also performed significantly worse than patients with other SSRD on information processing speed (Digit Symbol Substitution Test (V = .115, p = .035), Stroop Color–Word Test (SCWT) card 1 (V = .190, p = .006), and SCWT card 2 (V = .244, p < .001). No CD/FND vs. other SSRD differences were observed in other neurocognitive domains. These findings indicate the patients with CD/FND perform worse on information processing speed tests compared to patients with other SSRD.

Study on impulsivity and cognitive function in patients with manic episodes of bipolar I disorder

Objective To explore the role of impulsivity in manic episodes of bipolar I disorder and cognitive impairment. Methods Sixty-one patients with bipolar I manic-episode (study group) and 43 healthy volunteers (control group) were included in the study, and the cognitive function and impulsivity of the subjects were assessed using the MATRICS consensus cognitive battery (MCCB) and BIS-11 impulsivity scale (BIS-11). The differences in impulsivity and cognitive function between the study group and control group were compared.Partial correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between impulsivity and cognitive function in patients with bipolar I manic episode. Results (1)The scores of several cognitive function in study group, were significantly lower than those in healthy control group including information processing speed, attention alertness, word learning, visual learning, working memory, reasoning and problem solving (all P<0.01). (2)The total score, motor factor score and cognitive factor score of BIS-11 impulse scale in study group were significantly higher than those in control group (58.39±15.77 vs 48.02±11.16, 62.09±19.01 vs 44.24±21.09, 56.97±16.57 vs 50.06±13.87, all P<0.05). Increased overall scores on the bis-11 impulse inventory may be a risk factor for bipolar I episodes(OR=1.204, 95%CI=1.032-1.404). (3)In study group, the total score of BIS-11 was negatively correlated with the speed of information processing, working memory, word learning, reasoning and problem solving, and the total score of MCCB(r=-0.417, -0.360, -0.294, -0.348, -0.348, P<0.05). The score of unplanned factor was negatively correlated with the speed of information processing, word learning, the total score of MCCB(r=-0.397, -0.302, -0.358, P<0.05). The score of cognitive factor was negatively correlated with the speed of information processing, working memory, word learning, reasoning and problem solving, and the total score of MCCB(r=-0.327, -0.351, -0.374, -0.391, -0.463, P<0.05). The score of motor factor was negatively correlated with working memory and the total score of MCCB(r=0.370, r=0.389, P<0.05). Conclusion High impulsivity is a risk factor for manic episodes of bipolar I disorder and may be associated with cognitive impairment in patients with manic episodes of bipolar I disorder. Key words: Bipolar disorder; Manic episodes; Impulsivity; Cognitive function

Defects of Gamma Oscillations in Auditory Steady-State Evoked Potential of Schizophrenia.

BackgroundPatients with schizophrenia have many cognitive deficits. Gamma oscillations exist in the human brain and are closely related to neurocognition. Auditory Steady-State Responses (ASSRs) is an electroneurophysiological index that could reflect gamma oscillations. It was found that the energy evoked by 40 Hz ASSRs in schizophrenic patients was significantly lower than that in healthy subjects. However, the correlation between ASSRs phase index and clinical symptoms and neurocognitive deficits has yet to be systematically studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the dysfunction of neural activity of gamma rhythmdys function and its association with clinical symptoms and neurocognition in patients with schizophrenia.AimsTo compare and verify the difference in energy and phase coherence of 20 Hz and 40 Hz ASSRs between schizophrenia and healthy participants, and to explore the correlation between schizophrenia ASSRs and neurocognitive deficits.MethodAuditory steady-state evoked potentials by repeated auditory stimuli in 24 patients with schizophrenia and 30 healthy controls were recorded. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used to assess the clinical symptoms of the patients. MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was used for the assessment of neurocognitive function. The correlation between indices, such as ASSRs energy, phase locking factor and phase coherence, and clinical and cognitive assessment was also systematically compared between two groups.ResultsCompared with the control group, the patient group had differences in cognitive domains including information processing speed (t=-2.39, p=0.021), attention/vigilance (t=-2.36, p=0.023), verbal learning (t=-3.11, p=0.003), and reasoning and problem solving (t=-2.60, p=0.012). The energy of 40 Hz ASSRs in the patient group was significantly lower than that in the control group (t=-2.291, p=0.032), and their phase locking factor and inter-trial phase coherence index were lower than control group (t=-3.017, p=0.004 and t=3.131, p=0.003), which was also significantly correlated to reasoning and problem solving function deficits.ConclusionPatients with schizophrenia had defects in multiple cognitive domains, and their 40 Hz ASSRs energy was low. Specifically, their phase locking characteristics and phase coherence were poor, which was to some extent related to reasoning ability and thinking disorder.

Association between physical fitness and cognitive performance in 19-24 year old males.

The present study aimed to explore the association between physical fitness (PF) and cognitive performance in a sample of 19-24 year old males. Two hundred and eleven young males (20.2±1.5 years) participated in the study. Cognitive functioning tasks including information processing speed and inhibitory control were measured in addition to PF and motor fitness components such as aerobic fitness, static strength, explosive strength, agility and speed. Regression analysis showed that after adjustment for potential confounders (e.g. age, socioeconomic status, adiposity and physical activity), aerobic fitness (represented by shorter time in the one-mile run) was positively associated with composite inhibitory control scores (standardized β=0.17; p=0.04) and negatively associated with ∆ Simon (standardized β= -0.21; p=0.04). Explosive strength was negatively associated with composite information processing scores (standardized β= -0.24; P=0.01), and composite inhibitory control scores (standardized β= -0.22; p=0.02). Speed of movement, agility and static strength were not associated with any of the cognitive tests. In conclusion, aerobic fitness and explosive strength but not speed, agility or static strength might be indicators of underlying cognitive functioning tasks in 19-24 year old males.

Functional Components of Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Investigation.

Cognitive impairment is frequent and disabling in multiple sclerosis (MS). Changes in information processing speed constitute the most important cognitive deficit in MS. However, given the clinical and topographical variability of the disease, cognitive impairment may vary greatly and appear in other forms in addition to slower information processing speed. Our aim was to determine the frequency of cognitive impairment, the principal cognitive domains, and components involved in MS and to identify factors associated with presence of cognitive impairment in these patients in a large series of patients. Cross-sectional study of 311 patients with MS [236 with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), 52 with secondary progressive MS (SPMS), and 23 with primary progressive MS (PPMS)]. Patients' cognitive function was assessed with a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment protocol. Patients displaying deficits in 2 or more cognitive domains were considered to have cognitive impairment associated with MS. We conducted a principal component analysis to detect different cognitive patterns by identifying clusters of tests highly correlated to one another. Cognitive impairment was detected in 41.5% of the sample, and it was more frequent in patients with SPMS and PPMS (P = 0.002). Expanded Disability Status Scale scores and education were independent predictors of cognitive impairment. Principal component analysis identified seven clusters: attention and basic executive function (including information processing speed), planning and high-level executive function, verbal memory and language, executive and visuospatial performance time, fatigue-depression, visuospatial function, and basic attention and verbal/visual working memory. Mean scoring of components 2 (high-order executive functioning) and 3 (verbal memory-language) was higher in patients with RRMS than in those with PPMS (component 2) and SPMS (component 3). MS is linked to multiple cognitive profiles and disturbances in different domains. This suggests that cognitive alterations in MS are heterogeneous and affect other domains in addition to information processing speed.

Information processing speed and influential factors in multiple sclerosis

To study the information processing speed and the influential factors in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. A total of 36 patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), 21 patients with secondary progressive MS (SPMS), and 50 healthy control subjects from Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University between April 2010 and April 2012 were included into this cross-sectional study.Neuropsychological tests was conducted after the disease had been stable for 8 weeks, including information processing speed, memory, executive functions, language and visual perception.Correlation between information processing speed and depression, fatigue, Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) were studied. (1)MS patient groups demonstrated cognitive deficits compared to healthy controls.The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (control group 57±12; RRMS group 46±17; SPMS group 35±10, P<0.05) and Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) (control group 85±18; RRMS group 77±20; SPMS group 57±20, P<0.05) impaired most.SPMS patients were more affected compared to patients with RRMS subtypes, and these differences were attenuated after control for physical disability level as measured by the EDSS scores.MS patients, especially SPMS subtype, were more severely impaired than control group in the verbal learning test, verbal fluency, Stroop C test planning time, while visual-spatial function and visual memory were relatively reserved in MS patients.(2) According to the Pearson univariate correlation analysis, age, depression, EDSS scores and fatigue were related with PASAT and SDMT tests (r=-0.41--0.61, P<0.05). Depression significantly affected the speed of information processing (P<0.05). Impairment of information processing speed, verbal memory and executive functioning are seen in MS patients, especially in SPMS subtype, while visual-spatial function is relatively reserved.Age, white matter change scales, EDSS scores, depression are negatively associated with information processing speed.

Cognitive impairment among different clinical courses of multiple sclerosis

Background: As of yet, no consensus has been reached regarding cognitive impairment profiles in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients based on the MS type and disease duration.The main objective of this study was to describe cognitive impairment at the early stages of MS.The secondary objective was to compare cognitive performances in patients with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), secondary progressive (SP) MS and primary progressive (PP) MS.Methods: The study included 128 MS patients and 63 healthy controls (HC). The study constituted five groups: early RR (ERR) (<3 years); late RR (LRR) (>10 years), SP, PP, and healthy Controls (HC). A neuropsychological assessment was performed including information processing speed (IPS), working memory, verbal episodic memory and executive functions.Results: Compared to HC, only impairment in phonemic fluency was observed in ERR. Slowing IPS, impairment in working memory and phonemic fluency were shown in LRR. In progressive forms, deficits were observed in verbal episodic memory, in working memory, in flexibility, in semantic and phonemic fluencies, with a slowing IPS.Conclusion: Verbal fluency is impaired at early stage of RRMS, in this form of MS, impairment increased with MS duration, and distinct cognitive profiles were observed between chronic and progressive forms.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE DIGIT CANCELLATION TEST, A BRIEF SCREEN OF ATTENTION

The reliability and validity of a screening test called the D-CAT (Digit Cancellation Test) were evaluated across two studies. The D-CAT was developed to provide a highly practical and user-friendly assessment of various aspects of prefrontal cortex functioning, including information processing speed, the ability to focus attention, and executive functioning. Participants perform the D-CAT by deleting given target numbers on a sheet of randomly arranged possibilities. In Study 1, the reliability of the D-CAT was evaluated using a test-retest paradigm. Reasonably high correlations between scores on the two test sessions were obtained. In Study 2, construct validity was examined using a sample of participants with traumatic brain injury. TBI participants showed significantly lower D-CAT performance than age and education level matched healthy controls. On the basis of these findings, the D-CAT can be regarded as a reliable and valid screening test for attentional functioning.

Prospective Neurocognitive Function Over 5 Years After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for Cancer Survivors Compared With Matched Controls at 5 Years

Research has documented cognitive deficits both before and after high-dose treatment followed by allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), with partial recovery by 1 year. This study prospectively examined the trajectory and extent of long-term cognitive dysfunction, with a focus on 1 to 5 years after treatment. Allogeneic HCT recipients completed standardized neuropsychological tests including information processing speed (Trail Making A and Digit Symbol Substitution Test), verbal memory (Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised), executive function (Controlled Oral Word Association Test and Trail Making B), and motor dexterity and speed (Grooved Pegboard). Survivors (n = 92) were retested after 80 days and 1 and 5 years after transplantation. Case-matched controls (n = 66) received testing at the 5-year time point. A Global Deficit Score (GDS) summarized overall impairment. Response profiles were analyzed using linear mixed effects models. Survivors recovered significant cognitive function from post-transplantation (80 days) to 5 years in all tests (P < .0001) except verbal recall (P > .06). Between 1 and 5 years, verbal fluency improved (P = .0002), as did executive function (P < .01), but motor dexterity did not (P > .15), remaining below controls (P < .0001) and more than 0.5 standard deviation below population norms. In GDS, 41.5% of survivors and 19.7% of controls had mild or greater deficits (NcNemar test = 7.04, P = .007). Although neurocognitive function improved from 1 to 5 years after HCT, deficits remained for more than 40% of survivors. Risk factors, mechanisms and rehabilitation strategies need to be identified for these residual deficits.

Apolipoprotein ɛ4 and neuropsychological performance in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia

The apolipoprotein (APOE) ɛ4 allele is a genetic risk factor for the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). It has also been associated with vascular dementia (VaD) in some but not all studies. Previous studies have examined the role of APOE in predicting performance on cognitive tests in both demented and non-demented populations. In cognitively intact individuals, statistically significant group differences between APOE ɛ4 carriers and non-carriers have been demonstrated for several cognitive domains. In AD studies of the impact of APOE ɛ4 on cognition have been conflicting while no previous study has assessed cognition and impact of APOE ɛ4 in VaD. In this study we investigated the impact of APOE ɛ4 on performance in neuropsychological tests including information processing speed in patients with mild-moderate AD and VaD. We incorporated both computerized and pen and paper tests to ensure a sensitive method of assessing cognition. 109 patients participated in the study (VaD = 41, AD = 68). Neurocognitive performance of 44 ɛ4 present AD patients was compared to 24 ɛ4absent patients and performance of 23 ɛ4 present VaD patients was compared to 18 ɛ4 absent patients. There was evidence that APOE ɛ4 conferred a risk of poorer cognitive functioning in both patient groups. In the AD group presence of ɛ4 conferred a negative impact on some measures of speed of information processing and immediate recall while in the VaD group ɛ4 present patients had evidence of poorer accuracy on tasks such as choice reaction time and spatial working memory. In AD and VaD groups ɛ4 present patients showed impairment in selective attention. These findings provide further support of the negative impact of the ɛ4 allele in cognition.

067 Metformin in insulin resistant LV dysfunction, a double-blind, placebo controlled trial (Tayside trial)

<h3>Background</h3> Patients with schizophrenia have many cognitive deficits. Gamma oscillations exist in the human brain and are closely related to neurocognition. Auditory Steady-State Responses (ASSRs) is an electroneurophysiological index that could reflect gamma oscillations. It was found that the energy evoked by 40 Hz ASSRs in schizophrenic patients was significantly lower than that in healthy subjects. However, the correlation between ASSRs phase index and clinical symptoms and neurocognitive deficits has yet to be systematically studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the dysfunction of neural activity of gamma rhythmdys function and its association with clinical symptoms and neurocognition in patients with schizophrenia. <h3>Aims</h3> To compare and verify the difference in energy and phase coherence of 20 Hz and 40 Hz ASSRs between schizophrenia and healthy participants, and to explore the correlation between schizophrenia ASSRs and neurocognitive deficits. <h3>Method</h3> Auditory steady-state evoked potentials by repeated auditory stimuli in 24 patients with schizophrenia and 30 healthy controls were recorded. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used to assess the clinical symptoms of the patients. MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was used for the assessment of neurocognitive function. The correlation between indices, such as ASSRs energy, phase locking factor and phase coherence, and clinical and cognitive assessment was also systematically compared between two groups. <h3>Results</h3> Compared with the control group, the patient group had differences in cognitive domains including information processing speed (<i>t</i>=-2.39, <i>p</i>=0.021), attention/vigilance (<i>t</i>=-2.36, <i>p</i>=0.023), verbal learning (<i>t</i>=-3.11, <i>p</i>=0.003), and reasoning and problem solving (<i>t</i>=-2.60, <i>p</i>=0.012). The energy of 40 Hz ASSRs in the patient group was significantly lower than that in the control group (<i>t</i>=-2.291, <i>p</i>=0.032), and their phase locking factor and inter-trial phase coherence index were lower than control group (<i>t</i>=-3.017, <i>p</i>=0.004 and <i>t</i>=3.131, <i>p</i>=0.003), which was also significantly correlated to reasoning and problem solving function deficits. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Patients with schizophrenia had defects in multiple cognitive domains, and their 40 Hz ASSRs energy was low. Specifically, their phase locking characteristics and phase coherence were poor, which was to some extent related to reasoning ability and thinking disorder.

Conventional and Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis

An estimated 30–70% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) have some cognitive impairment. Cognitive function depends on a spectrum of faculties including information processing speed, sustained attention, recent memory and executive function. The broad definition of cognition has resulted in different assessments of function, and repeatable batteries of tests have been devised to gain an overall and repeatable view of cognition in MS. Many studies have attempted to find an association between cognitive function and MS pathology using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Conventional MRI has been used to show the relationship between cognitive impairment and MS lesion volume and/or brain volume (reflecting atrophy). Studies using quantitative MRI to estimate the degree of abnormality in tissue that is normal-appearing on conventional MRI have also found correlations with cognitive function. Longitudinally, cognitive decline has been found to correlate with changing MRI-detectable pathology in some studies. However, consistency between studies has been lacking, and the large number of cognitive tests available makes direct comparison of different studies difficult. Focus on specific cognitive domains may alleviate this issue in future studies.

Cognitive performance as a predictor of functional decline among the non-disabled elderly dwelling in a Japanese community: A 4-year population-based prospective cohort study

This study longitudinally examined the relationships between the specific domains of cognitive performance and functional decline among the community elderly. The study population was 119 men and 194 women aged 70–84 at baseline, who were examined at both baseline and in a 4-year follow-up survey. Katz's Index and the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology Index of Competence (TMIG-IC) were used for measuring the functional capacities of basic activities of daily living (BADL) and higher-level competence, respectively. For the purpose of analyses, declines in each subscale of functional capacity during the follow-up period were used as outcome variables; and specific domains of cognitive performances, including information processing speed, executive function, orientation, and episodic memory at baseline, were used as independent variables. Multiple logistic regression analyses, adjusted for the potential confounders, showed that information processing speed and orientation were associated independently and inversely with BADL decline, and that information processing speed and executive function were related independently and inversely to higher-level competence decline. These results suggested that information processing speed and orientation are reliable predictors for decline in BADL, and information processing speed and executive function are also reliable predictors for decline in higher-level competence among the community elderly.