Inca Road Research Articles

Beyond Inca roads: the Redes Andinas project explores complex palimpsests of Andean road networks

AbstractThe Redes Andinas (Andean Networks) project assesses the complexity of ancient road networks in the archaeological record in the Andes, beyond the Inca roads system. A multiscale methodological approach allows us to characterise the transformation and resilience of the road networks over the past millennium, in the context of the 18°South parallel's vertical transect.

Is all the UNESCO´s Qhapaq Ñan really Inca? Problems with the incorporation of sections and sites from San Juan (Argentina)

The nomination and acceptance of the Qhapaq Ñan as World Heritage took more than a decade of work in the six countries involved. In Argentina, a centralized coordination system in charge of articulating the proposals of the provinces that were part of the national program was implemented. Some people expressed certain inconveniences in the program’s development, mainly related to the participation of native communities. Furthermore, the presentation approved by UNESCO shows some shortcomings associated with the identification of some of the proposed elements. In this sense, and in order to provide relevant information to better understand the Argentinean nomination process and its outcome, this article shows the divergences between the Inca Road system known in San Juan and the one accepted in the project, the nomination of a section and associated sites without the corresponding evidence of their Inca character and a failed previous proposal to incorporate historical sites to the project. Also, to help explain this situation, some aspects related to the actions of different agents and the possible incidence of political power are discussed.

A Chronological Model for Inca Provincial Expansion: The Case of the Copiapo Valley

Abstract This article examines a new dataset of radiocarbon dates that provides insights into the progressive installation of Inca infrastructure in the Copiapo Valley, situated at the southern edge of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. It shows that the Inca imperial expansion in this region was not a linear process and was likely shaped by local negotiations and conflicts. The findings describe three main stages of Inca expansion. The first is the construction of the North–South Inca Road and the establishment of high-altitude mountain shrines. The next stage consisted of a physical intervention in a local village located in the upper valley, including the construction of administrative buildings and public spaces. The last stage involved indirect intervention in local villages, characterized by the presence of isolated administrative buildings that were potentially used for diplomacy and negotiation. I argue that the Inca imperial expansion, characterized by evolving strategies across regions and time periods, not only demonstrates the state's capacity for learning but also suggests the pivotal role of local actors in positions of power who wielded agency to shape these developments.

Characterization of Geoheritage and Geotourism Potential of the Fluvial-Glacial Landscapes in the Culebrillas Lagoon (Ecuador)

Geotourism is a concept that is expanding rapidly throughout the world without exception, given its versatility to value the elements of geodiversity and geoheritage; landscape elements without an apparent use or benefit usually find in geotourism a window that can exploit unsuspected conditions. Culebrillas Lagoon, located in the southern center of the Ecuadorian Andes, represents a hydrographic unit of glacio–lacustrine origin as a typical hidden place that conceals a valuable geotourism potential. Culebrillas is marked by a series of fluvio–glacial morphologies, whose forms hide an important cultural heritage expressed in its festivities, myths, and legends which have been celebrated through the centuries. Inca and Cañari civilizations have been, in the past and present, the original groups that inhabited this sector, and important vestiges of their presence are still evident, as in the case of the Qhapaq Ñan or the Inca road system. The present investigation allowed the generating of information about elements of geoheritage and other related resources that have various potential uses, and which highlight the intrinsic values present in this area, complementing each other from a holistic socio–environmental and geotourism perspective.

Beyond Inca roads: archaeological mobilities from the high Andes to the Pacific in southern Peru

The Andes offers a particularly effective focus for an archaeology of mobility because their extreme topography compresses enormous vertical resource diversity across short horizontal distances. In this article, the authors combine findings from two large-scale archaeological studies of adjacent watersheds—the Nasca-Palpa Project and One River Project—to provide the necessary context in which to explore changing mobilities from the Archaic Period to the Inca Empire, and from the Pacific coast to the high Andes. Analyses of obsidian lithics and stable isotopes in human hair are used to argue that changing patterns of mobility offer a new way of defining the ‘Horizons’ that have long dominated concepts of periodisation here.

Heritage routes and multiple narratives. The Inca Road System (Qhapaq Ñan, Camino principal andino / Andean road system): a specific case of a non-tourism heritage route?

This article discusses the heritage producing machine where transnational cultural routes are concerned, and specifically in the light of the heritage narratives established at different scales by those involved in heritage development. It comprises a heuristic reflection on the notion of heritage and on the quest for inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List through the categories of cultural landscapes and heritage routes. The study of the Qhapaq Ñan (Camino principal andino / Andean road system), some 4,000 km of roads across six Andean countries from Colombia in the north to Argentina and Chile in the south, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2014, provides a geopolitical interpretation of an ambitious transnational cultural project. The issue of sharing the values embodied by the heritage route are examined through multiple narratives, glorifying a remembrance that, while shared, yet lacks consensus. The tourism development (ecotourism) of the Qhapaq Ñan is expected, rejected and conflictual, as are the multiple narratives that punctuate the Inca Road System and the difficult appropriations of this fragmented heritage route.

Center of territorial domains and the network of the inca road - Qhapaq Ñan, in the province of Tumbes - Peru

Center of territorial domains and the network of the inca road - Qhapaq Ñan, in the province of Tumbes - Peru

Long-Term Effects of the Inca Road

The Inca Empire was the last of a long series of highly developed cultures in pre-colonial South America. It stretched across parts of the current territories of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and the whole of Peru. The Inca Road was its 30,000-kilometer-long transportation system. The aim of this study is to identify its long-term impact on current development in Peru. Our results show that the long-run effect of the Inca Road includes increases in wages and educational attainment, a reduction of child malnutrition and an increase in children’s mathematics test scores. We also find that these effects are around 20% greater for women and explore the mechanisms that may account for this pattern.

Long-Term Effects of the Inca Road

The Inca Empire was the last of a long series of highly developed cultures in pre-colonial South America. It stretched across parts of the current territories of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and the whole of Peru. The Inca Road was its 30,000-kilometer-long transportation system. The aim of this study is to identify its long-term impact on current development in Peru. Our results show that the long-run effect of the Inca Road includes increases in wages and educational attainment, a reduction of child malnutrition and an increase in children’s mathematics test scores. We also find that these effects are around 20% greater for women and explore the mechanisms that may account for this pattern.

Mapping landscapes of movements: representing Indigenous space signification

This article explores the conceptualisation of intangible heritage through the placement of traditional practices, by providing a method for cultural heritage inventories on Indigenous territories. Landscapes of movements is the theory that allows the analysis of Indigenous cultures and territories in terms of context, inhabitants, heritage, policies, traditions, symbolism, landmarks and roads. The case study is Caspana, a Likan Antai community in the north of Chile, incorporated in the Inca roads. Through interviews over a tenure map built in co-labour with the community in study, it was possible to articulate a space signification in relation to people’s movement as a “ritual territory” and an “ancient territory”, one for the present and for past movement, respectively. This tenure map method becomes a tool for the Indigenous communities, who can now use it as argument for claiming their rights over land.

El Qhapaq Ñan en el valle de Calingasta (San Juan)

El Qhapaq Ñan atravesaba longitudinalmente los valles preandinos sanjuaninos de Iglesia y Calingasta y su existencia en esta zona, sostenida desde mediados del siglo XX, ha sido recientemente confirmada. Como parte de nuestros estudios en el centro y sur de San Juan, relevamos recientemente el sector oriental del valle de Calingasta con el objeto de comprobar la conservación de evidencias del Qhapaq Ñan y de determinar el recorrido que seguía este ramal de la vialidad incaica en su paso hacia el norte de Mendoza. La búsqueda abarcó desde la villa de Calingasta (ca. 31°20’S, 69°25’O) hasta aproximadamente 32°04’S. Los resultados de la misma indican la ausencia de evidencias del camino en el sector norte del valle, la presencia clara del mismo desde el este de la localidad de Barreal (ca. 31°38’S, 69°28’O) hasta ca. 31°55’S, y la ausencia de estructuras incaicas de envergadura en el sector relevado.

Distribution of archaeological sites of Ancient Peru is linked to climatology and natural vegetation

In this article, we try to discover a parallelism among climate and bioclimate belts, use of the territory, and previously studied plant communities, taking into account historical and archaeological data to find an answer as to how different cultures perceived the landscapes. After a statistical analysis generating a Sørensen dendrogram, we were able to observe how archaeological sites were ordered according to bioclimatic belts, crops, and human activity; the results of a canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed connections among archaeological sites, crops, products, and plant associations of the landscapes. Groups with the most humid climate represent areas with crops with a seasonal rain regime and shepherding of llamas and alpacas, while groups with the driest climate represent areas whose crops need irrigation. Notably, occidental slope areas with cactus associations present a terrace agricultural system irrigated by water springs, while sites near riparian plant associations are joined to vegetable gardens. Amazonian and Oriental Andean crops are present in the same bioclimatic belt in comparison to the coast. Using a minimal spanning tree (MST), hypothetical roads to exchange products between different crop areas could be traced with a high coincidence with the Inca Road (Qhapaq Ñan).

Paisajes prehispánicos intersticiales: Naturaleza urbana y patrimonio arqueoastronómico en Ñaña, Lima

El propósito de esta investigación es analizar el paisaje y el patrimonio arqueoastronómico de Ñaña, en Lurigancho-Chosica, que sobrevive en los intersticios de la periferia urbana contemporánea de Lima Metropolitana. A pesar del abandono estatal y el crecimiento urbano no regulado de su entorno, estos mantienen un enorme potencial, aún poco aprovechado. La zona arqueológica Unión-Ñaña estuvo habitada desde tiempos prehispánicos por especialistas en la observación de fenómenos celestes llamados yañac, ligados al culto al nevado Pariacaca, el apu más importante de los Andes centrales del Perú, según el mítico Manuscrito de Huarochirí del siglo XVI. Por lo tanto, el estudio de la relación entre paisaje y alineamientos astronómicos (un aspecto clave de la cosmovisión andina) formó parte fundamental de la presente investigación, que también tiene el objetivo de profundizar en el entendimiento de la función primigenia y el potencial a futuro de estos parajes milenarios vinculados al Qhapaq Ñan del Valle del Rímac. El empleo de un enfoque multidisciplinario de investigación, que ahonde en estos hallazgos y sirva como base para el futuro desarrollo ambiental y cultural de la zona de estudio, surge como variable a evaluarse. Los resultados mostrados son producto de un profuso trabajo de campo y mapeo del contexto utilizando software ARC GIS, Stellarium y SunCalc.

Archaeogeophysical-Based Approach for Inca Archaeology: Overview and one operational application

Even if, in recent decades, the use of remote sensing technologies (from satellite, aerial and ground) for archaeology is stepping into its golden age, in Southern America geophysics for preventive archaeology is more recent and less used than in Europe, Central America and Middle East. In this paper, we provide a brief overview and show the preliminary results obtained from the investigations conducted in Chachabamba (Peru). The archaeological area is located on a strategic terrace overlooking three Inca roads, which served the most important ceremonial centres (including Machu Picchu) of the Urubamba Valley also known as the Sacred Valley. In particular, Chachabamba investigations were conducted with two principal aims: (1) to give new impetus to archaeological research with targeted investigations aimed at improving and completing the site’s knowledge framework; (2) to experiment and validate an archaeogeophysical approach to be reapplied in other sites of the Urubamba valley, including Machu Picchu, having similar characteristics as those found in Chachabamba.

Del Cusco renace la integración andina: La restauración del Puente de la Almudena

Este artículo presenta una crítica arquitectónica al resultado de la obra de Recuperación y Puesta en Valor del Puente de La Almudena en la ciudad de Cusco, culminada el año 2006. Dicho proyecto parte de la idea general de recuperar físicamente la trayectoria histórica de los caminos pertenecientes al sistema vial inca Qhapaq Ñan, que alguna vez fue la primordial herramienta de integración del entonces Tawantinsuyu. La ejecución de este proyecto significó la renovación de un espacio en franco proceso de deterioro e insalubridad, así como la reapertura del acceso por medio del cual el centro histórico de la ciudad de Cusco se comunica con los territorios del Kuntisuyu o territorios hacia la costa, intervención durante la cual tuvieron lugar nuevos retos y experiencias metodológicas, además de que se gestó una nueva forma de concebir el valor del patrimonio civil público de carácter vial, hasta entonces poco apreciado.

Roads, exports and employment: Evidence from a developing country

Domestic road programs are often justified on the basis of their presumed positive effects on firms' exports and accordingly on firms' employment. In this paper we evaluate this policy claim for Peru, a developing country whose regions were exposed to an asymmetric infrastructure shock. In so doing, we take advantage of detailed geo-referenced data on firm-level trade for the period 2003–2010 as well as on recent and historical road infrastructure. In particular, to identify the impacts of interest, we first exploit the dimensions of this dataset to account for regional-sectoral and even firm-level confounding factors through extensive sets of fixed effects. In addition, we conduct placebo exercises and carry out instrumental variable estimations whereby we instrument recent changes in the road network with the pre-Columbian Inca road network. Estimates concur in suggesting that improvements in transport infrastructure had a significant positive impact on firms' exports and thereby on firms' job growth.

Rethinking imperial infrastructure: A bottom-up perspective on the Inca Road

The Inca road has been the iconic example of imperial infrastructure inthe prehispanic Andes. However, scholarly attention to its role in expanding and consolidating the Inca domain has overshadowed analysis of how locals may have appropriated the Inca road for their own private benefit. Based on a full-coverage survey and excavations, this article presents the case of small mining communities along the Inca road and the use they made of it. I argue that they most likely leveraged on emerging imperial infrastructure, in order to expand their existing lapidary and pigment production and exchange in the Atacama desert. The Inca Road may thus have served as an unintended stimuli for local economic activities, since it improved transportation logistics, and served as a linear exchange nexus. I further demonstrate how the Inca Road was, to some extent, appropriated to serve local economic purposes. This provides a unique “bottom-up” perspective of how the Inca infrastructure could not be fully controlled by the elites. Thus, the “imperial landscape” created by the Inca Road was more permeable than what the Incas expected and scholars have assumed, despite the physical or ideological coercion elites may have enforced.

Highways to Empire: The Inca Road System

The road network built by the Incas included new and preexisting roads, and although it bound their empire together, it also hastened that empire's demise.

Best Paper Award for 2013

The Editor would like to announce the Best Paper Award winner from the Journal’s four 2013 issues. The Best Paper Award goes to Kathleen M. Leonard and Gillian M. Nicholls for their paper “History and Status of Female Faculty in Civil Engineering” found in volume 139, number 3, published in July 2013. Other nominations were “Innovative Technologies Used to Investigate Segments of the Inca Road” by Edward J. Jaselskis et al. from the same issue, “Work-Life Balance and Organizational Commitment of Women in the U.S. Construction Industry” by E. Kent Malone and Raja R. A. Issa in the April issue, and “Risk-Sharing in Highway Concessions: Contractual Diversity in Portugal” by Carlos Oliveira Cruz and Rui Cunha, also in the April issue. The Editor encourages researchers to dig out issues of the Journal and reread these fine papers. The quality of the Journal depends on the quality of author submissions, and manuscripts of this caliber provide a valuable service to the profession.

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Objectives: To advise the right usage of archaeological cultural heritage from Qhapaq Nan in Huanuco as a cultural park, through a cultural management efficient model based on research, protection, conservation and social use, to turn this place into a touristic destination and so contribute to a project not only to safeguard this heritage but also to increase income and reduce poverty levels in the area. Methods: This is a comparative study that describes and to gather the cultural management experiences about how people in other places take advantage of the legacy and archaeological cultural heritage, both nationally and globally. The design model was correlational. The research was quantitative and qualitative. Descriptive, comparative, analytical, historical, deductive methods were used. Results: The study suggests the need to optimize resources to take advantage of Qhapaq Nan as a cultural park through an adequate cultural management, the park will comprise 68,34 km from the Tambococha or Tunsucancha Tambo to Taparako Tambo, because it is one of the best preserved sectors and involves important areas of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Conclusions: The Inca Road in Huanuco is one of the most important heritages in the region and the country, and that it is possible to be promoted as a cultural park using a cultural management model, if we take into account the various management experiences in the country and in the world.