Inappropriate Name Research Articles

Stop using racist, unethical, and inappropriate names in taxonomy

Stop using racist, unethical, and inappropriate names in taxonomy

GAMBARAN VERBAL BULLYING YANG TERJADI PADA SISWA KELAS TINGGI DI SD INPRES 5/81 SAMAELO KECAMATAN BAREBBO KABUPATEN BONE

This research is a qualitative research that aims to describe the behavior of verbal bullying that often occurs in the upper grade at SD Inpres 5/81 Samaelo, Barebbo District, Bone Regency. The research subjects were the high grade students and high grade teachers at SD Inpres 5/81 Samaelo. Data collection was carried out using interviews and documentation techniques. Data analysis techniques include: data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. Results of the study: the forms of verbal bullying that often occur in high grades at SD Inpres 5/81 Samaelo, Barebbo District, Bone Regency are mocking friends with inappropriate names, mocking friends who can't do the questions given by the teacher, shouting at friends, forbidding other friends join the group, and make fun of friends.

Defending Art. 51 of theCode: Comments on Smith & al. (2022)

AbstractSmith & al. (2022), Hammer & Thiele (2021), and some other authors recently discussed and proposed dramatic changes to theInternational Code of Nomenclature of algae, fungi, and plants(ICN) aimed at the provisions allowing rejection and replacement of valid and legitimate names that reflect the “colonial and imperialist power” or may be considered, at least by some experts and users, as “culturally offensive or inappropriate” because of several broadly and vaguely formulated reasons, such as names considered to be “derogatory or insulting to a person or group of people”, those honoring “a person that the taxonomic community agrees should not be honoured”, and even any name that “otherwise causes deep offense”. These proposals and their possible outcomes were analyzed and criticized in my article (Mosyakin, 2022), which was, in turn, criticized in a recent article by Smith & al. (2022). In the present note I respond to that criticism, discuss additional cases of possible “culturally offensive or inappropriate” names, and provide additional evidence of possible (and, in my opinion, highly probable) confrontational and disruptive outcomes in case if the proposals to reject “culturally offensive or inappropriate” names are accepted and incorporated into theICN. I appeal to the international community of taxonomists to reject such proposals, to protect the fundamental Preamble 1 and Art. 51 of theICN, to protect the scientific freedom and principles of nomenclatural stability and political neutrality, and to protect our science from politically motivated decisions. The Pandora's Box of anticipated fights for or against “culturally offensive and inappropriate names” should remain firmly closed. Scientists in general and plant taxonomists in our case should firmly stand for the common values of scientific freedom, mutual understanding and respect, tolerance, reconciliation, a bold, open‐minded and honest view of history (including history of taxonomy), and, specifically, the principle of neutrality of biological nomenclature well expressed in Art. 51 of theICN. Essentially the same provisions in earlier versions of theCodeor other earlier rules of botanical nomenclature served well the generations of taxonomists and users of taxonomic information, preventing unnecessary conflicts between people and peoples over names of organisms, which someone sometime somehow may or may not consider “culturally offensive or inappropriate”. Preamble 1 and Art. 51 of theICNare crucial tools for maintaining nomenclatural stability, civility, and tolerance in our diverse, complicated and, unfortunately, not so peaceful present‐day world, and especially in our science of biological taxonomy reflecting the amazing diversity of the living world of our planet.

NORTH AMERICAN COMMISSION ON STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE Note 72 - Application for Revisions to the North American Stratigraphic Code to Address Culturally Offensive or Inappropriate Unit Names and to Encourage the Use of Indigenous Place Names

The North American Stratigraphic Code ("the Code") addresses the naming of formal geologic units from a scientific perspective. Guidelines based on scientific rationale are provided for assigning and revising unit names. However, whereas some scientific codes and guidelines now address the problem of offensive or inappropriate names, the Code at present has no means of addressing such matters. This omission presents a problem because most categories of formal units covered by the Code are named after geographic features, and some units have thus inherited culturally offensive or inappropriate names. The naming of geographic features (toponymy) also has reflected the historic suppression of Indigenous languages in North America. To address the first issue, additions and changes to the Code are proposed around the use of culturally offensive or inappropriate names: to explicitly counsel against their use; to provide a simplified process to rename scientifically valid units; and to invalidate nomenclatural stability as a justification for retaining such unit names. To address the second issue, additions to the Code are proposed that recognize maps produced by Indigenous governments or organizations as sources of geographic names, and that encourage the respectful use of Indigenous place names.

Homo bodoensis and why it matters.

In our original paper, we proposed a new species, Homo bodoensis, to replace the problematical taxa Homo heidelbergensis and Homo rhodesiensis, with the goal of streamlining communication about human evolution in the Chibanian. We received two independent responses. Given their substantial overlap, we provide one combined reply. In this response: (1) we are encouraged that the primary proposal in our paper, to discontinue the use of H. heidelbergensis (as a junior synonym to Homo neanderthalensis) due to its' nomenclatural problems, is acknowledged. (2) we provide additional clarification about the rules governing taxonomic nomenclature as outlined by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and join the growing calls for a revision to these rules. (3) we discuss further why H. rhodesiensis should be abandoned, particularly in light of the current sensitivity to using culturally inappropriate names. We conclude that H. bodoensis is a better solution than the proposed alternatives.

Dealing with inappropriate honorifics in a structured and defensible way is possible

AbstractIn a recent article electronically published in Taxon as a “Point of View” in 2021 (and subsequently in hardcopy as a “Perspective” in 2022), Gideon F. Smith and Estrela Figueiredo commented on the undesirability of the continued commemoration of people of severely questionable ethics, including the imperialist Cecil John Rhodes (1853–1902), in botanical nomenclature. Independently addressing a similar topic at around the same time, Timothy A. Hammer and Kevin R. Thiele published proposals to amend Articles 51 and 56 and Division III of the Code, to allow the considered rejection of culturally offensive and inappropriate names. Subsequently, widely circulated responses to Smith & Figueiredo (2022) and Hammer & Thiele (2021) severely misrepresented our positions and views. We here respond to allegations that what we proposed will damage plant nomenclature, and clarify and further substantiate our views.

A new infodemiological approach through Google Trends: longitudinal analysis of COVID-19 scientific and infodemic names in Italy

The scientific community has classified COVID-19 as the worst pandemic in human history. The damage caused by the new disease was direct (e.g., deaths) and indirect (e.g., closure of economic activities). Within the latter category, we find infodemic phenomena such as the adoption of generic and stigmatizing names used to identify COVID-19 and the related novel coronavirus 2019 variants. These monikers have fostered the spread of health disinformation and misinformation and fomented racism and segregation towards the Chinese population. In this regard, we present a comprehensive infodemiological picture of Italy from the epidemic outbreak in December 2019 until September 2021. In particular, we propose a new procedure to examine in detail the web interest of users in scientific and infodemic monikers linked to the identification of COVID-19. To do this, we exploited the online tool Google Trends. Our findings reveal the widespread use of multiple COVID-19-related names not considered in the previous literature, as well as a persistent trend in the adoption of stigmatizing and generic terms. Inappropriate names for cataloging novel coronavirus 2019 variants of concern have even been adopted by national health agencies. Furthermore, we also showed that early denominations influenced user behavior for a long time and were difficult to replace. For these reasons, we suggest that the assignments of scientific names to new diseases are more timely and advise against mass media and international health authorities using terms linked to the geographical origin of the novel coronavirus 2019 variants.

(119–122) Proposals to amend Articles 51 and 56 and Division III, to allow the rejection of culturally offensive and inappropriate names

(119–122) Proposals to amend Articles 51 and 56 and Division <scp>III</scp>, to allow the rejection of culturally offensive and inappropriate names

COLORS IN THE INTERNATIONAL MARKETING

Companies achieve great benefits when they sell products and services abroad. The advantages of International trade are numerous, such as efficient allocation and better utilization of resources, efficiency in production, increased revenues, more employment, higher market share, longer product lifespan, enhanced reputation, etc. Without a thorough marketing research of the foreign (local) market, as well as the understanding of cultural peculiarities, many companies, even the famous ones, are making mistakes that can jeopardize their business. International marketing blunders are related to poor translations of slogans into a different language, unacceptable product designs, inappropriate or ambiguous brand names, packaging methods, and even the use of colours and visual effects. For the importance of the colours in International marketing, a research speaks that found that 93% of consumers focus on visual appearance, and close to 85% claim colour is a primary reason when they make a purchase. It is known that the colour can attract attention, can stimulate emotional responses, can influence the perception of individuals, can influence on attitudes formation, improves learning and persuasion of consumers to buy a particular product. Colour affects the human behaviour and the purchasing decision making. As a brand’s identity element, companies must be careful when they use it in the product itself, packaging, product’s logo, slogan, display, name, design, signage. Colour meanings differ dramatically from culture to culture. There are a range of cultural influences that affect the usage of a specific colour: political and historical associations (flag colours, political parties), mythological and religious associations (references to colour in spiritual texts), linguistic associations (idioms and expressions), tradition (weddings, funerals, children birth, graduation), etc.

Fighting COVID-19: What’s in a Name?

While the COVID-19 virus has infected over 3 million people in the United States of America, Asian Americans face unique unfair treatment due to COVID-19. In America, many anti-Asian incidents have been reported, and the FBI warns of increased hate crimes to Asian Americans due to COVID-19. Americans and high-level politicians use inappropriate names, such as “Chinese Virus,” for the COVID-19 virus, which fuels racism and xenophobia. In this Experience piece, we discuss the harm of referring to the COVID-19 virus based on the geographic location where it was first identified.

Nomenclatural and taxonomic changes in tribe Myrteae (Myrtaceae) spurred by molecular phylogenies

Phylogenetic studies have highlighted incongruous generic placement and the usage of inappropriate names for species within tribe Myrteae (Myrtaceae). The genera affected are Calycolpus, Eugenia, Myrcia and Psidium. Eugenia aubletiana is legitimized by the designation of a lectotype and its usage proposed instead of Calycorectes bergii. Two generic transfers are proposed: Psidium sessiliflorum based on Calycolpus sessiliflorus and Myrcia neosericea, based on Eugenia neosericea. The re-instatement of Psidium cupreum, currently a synonym of Psidium rufum as an accepted species is proposed. Illustrations of the four affected species are furnished, as well as a map of occurrences of Psidium sessiliflorum. Tetramery associated to inflorescences reduced to 1(-3) flowers, an unusual combination of characters in Myrcia sect. Gomidesia, is identified in both Myrcia glaziovii and Myrcia neosericea, and a key to distinguish them is provided.

부적절한 장애인 호칭들의 문제와 대안 - 공인 번역 성경들을 중심으로

한국 사회에서 호칭 문제는 우리의 일상생활에서 민감한 요소인 만큼 부적절하고 비속어적인 장애인 호칭 문제 역시 신학적인 그리고 교회적인 관심이 필요한 영역이다. 왜냐하면 부적절한 장애인 호칭은 장애인의 부정적인 이미지를 가져오고, 그것은 다시 장애인에 대한 편견과 차별을 당연시하는 악순환으로 이어지기 때문이다. 따라서 하나님의 말씀으로서 절대적 권위를 갖고 있는 성경에 나타나는 장애인에 대한 중립적인 호칭은 기독교인의 태도와 실천 아울러 장애인의 인권과 복지에 있어서 매우 중요한 의미를 갖는다.<BR> 이 논문은 구약성경과 신약성경에 나타나는 장애인 호칭들의 한글 번역에 관한 것이다. 한국 교회는 1887년 『예수셩교젼셔』라는 최초의 한글 번역 성경 이래 지금까지 7개의 공인 번역 성경을 출간해 왔다: 『개역』(1938/1952/1961년)과 『개역개정』(1998년), 『공동번역』(1977년)과 『공동번역개정』(1999년), 『표준새번역』(1993년)과 『새번역』(2001년) 그리고 『성경』(2005년, 천주교주교회의)이다. 이것들은 모두 히브리어 성경(BHS)과 헬라어 성경(NTG)을 기초로 번역한 한국 교회의 공인 성경들(『성경』을 제외하고는 모두 대한성서공회의 번역)이다. 문제는 최근에 개정한 번역 성경들 역시 장애인 호칭에 있어서 여전히 불규칙하고 일관성이 없으며 부정적인 편견과 차별을 가져오는 비속어들을 상당수 포함하고 있다는데 있다.<BR> 이 문제에 있어서 필자는 이 논문에서 장애인을 가리키는 히브리어와 헬라어 용어들과 이것들을 번역한 한글 성경들의 호칭들을 비교하면서 표준적인 장애인 호칭을 제안하고 강조하려고 한다. 이것을 위해서 구약성경(BHS)에서 발견되는 장애인들은 대표적으로 , , , 이다. 첫 번째 는 시각 장애인, 와 는 각각 언어와 청각(혹은 언어) 장애가 있는 사람에게, 마지막 용어 는 지체 장애인에게 붙여진 용어이다. 또한 신약성경(NTG)에 등장하는 장애인들은 χωλός, κυλλός, ἀνάπειρος, κωφός, ἄλαλος, τυφλός 이다. 이 원문들에 대한 8종류의 공인 한글 성경들의 전체적인 번역 상황이 <종합표>에 실려 있다. 현재 장애인 복지법은 “장애인”이라는 호칭을 기본으로 지체 장애인, 언어 장애인, 청각 장애인, 시각 장애인을 사용할 것을 권고하고 있다(이 논문은 성경에서 거의 등장하지 않는 정신 장애인을 연구 대상에서 제외한다). 장애인은 이 시대의 전형적인 사회적 약자로서 호칭에 따라 쉽게 상처를 받고 역으로 용기를 얻기도 한다. 따라서 이 논문은 구약성경과 신약성경에 등장하는 모든 장애인 호칭들의 비교(<종합표>)와 함께 몇몇의 본문들(레 21:8; 잠 31:8; 사 56:10; 마 11:5; 막 9:25; 눅 11:14, 14:13; 요 5:3)을 선택해서 장애인 호칭이 어떻게 번역되어야 할 것인지 그 대안을 제안한다. 이러한 장애인 호칭들의 번역 연구는 차기에 이루어질 성경 번역에 공헌을 하게 될 것이다.

Concept–based Analysis of Java Programming Errors among Low, Average and High Achieving Novice Programmers

Aim/Purpose: The study examined types of errors made by novice programmers in different Java concepts with students of different ability levels in programming as well as the perceived causes of such errors. Background: To improve code writing and debugging skills, efforts have been made to taxonomize programming errors and their causes. However, most of the studies employed omnibus approaches, i.e. without consideration of different programing concepts and ability levels of the trainee programmers. Such concepts and ability specific errors identification and classifications are needed to advance appropriate intervention strategy. Methodology: A sequential exploratory mixed method design was adopted. The sample was an intact class of 124 Computer Science and Engineering undergraduate students grouped into three achievement levels based on first semester performance in a Java programming course. The submitted codes in the course of second semester exercises were analyzed for possible errors, categorized and grouped across achievement level. The resulting data were analyzed using descriptive statistics as well as Pearson product correlation coefficient. Qualitative analyses through interviews and focused group discussion (FGD) were also employed to identify reasons for the committed errors. Contribution:The study provides a useful concept-based and achievement level specific error log for the teaching of Java programming for beginners. Findings: The results identified 598 errors with Missing symbols (33%) and Invalid symbols (12%) constituting the highest and least committed errors respec-tively. Method and Classes concept houses the highest number of errors (36%) followed by Other Object Concepts (34%), Decision Making (29%), and Looping (10%). Similar error types were found across ability levels. A significant relationship was found between missing symbols and each of Invalid symbols and Inappropriate Naming. Errors made in Methods and Classes were also found to significantly predict that of Other Object concepts. Recommendations for Practitioners: To promote better classroom practice in the teaching of Java programming, findings for the study suggests instructions to students should be based on achievement level. In addition to this, learning Java programming should be done with an unintelligent editor. Recommendations for Researchers: Research could examine logic or semantic errors among novice programmers as the errors analyzed in this study focus mainly on syntactic ones. Impact on Society: The digital age is code-driven, thus error analysis in programming instruction will enhance programming ability, which will ultimately transform novice programmers into experts, particularly in developing countries where most of the software in use is imported. Future Research: Researchers could look beyond novice or beginner programmers as codes written by intermediate or even advanced programmers are still not often completely error free.

SearCh for humourIstic and Extravagant acroNyms and Thoroughly Inappropriate names For Important Clinical trials (SCIENTIFIC): qualitative and quantitative systematic study

Objectives To describe the development of acronym use across five major medical specialties and to evaluate the technical and aesthetic quality of the acronyms.Design Acronyms obtained through a literature search...

Predictors of Errors of Novice Java Programmers

This descriptive study determined which of the sources of errors would predict the errors committed by novice Java programmers. Descriptive statistics revealed that the respondents perceived that they committed the identified eighteen errors infrequently. Thought error was perceived to be the main source of error during the laboratory programming exercises. Factor analysis showed that there were five categories for the types of errors committed. Four of them were symbol- or keyword-related errors (Invalid symbols or keywords, Mismatched symbols, Missing symbols, and Excessive symbols) and the fifth one was Naming-related error (Inappropriate naming error). Regression analysis showed that Sensorimotor and Habit errors, together with Knowledge error, were found to predict Mismatched symbols and Missing symbols errors, respectively. Knowledge error was found to be the consistent source of the five types of errors. Thus, the null hypothesis stating that sources of errors do not predict errors committed by novice Java programmers is partially rejected. The implications of the findings were also discussed.

Rabin’s road: The politics of toponymic commemoration of Yitzhak Rabin in Israel

Embedded into the language of the landscape and integrated into the routines of everyday life, toponymic commemorations belong to the political geography of public memory. The impact of Yitzhak Rabin’s assassination on Israeli society and culture was made apparent in a space-time matrix of public commemorations, which introduced remembrance of the slain Prime Minister into the public sphere. This article focuses on the politics of Rabin’s toponymic commemoration, evinced in decision-making procedures at local and national levels of government in various stages of the commemoration project. It expands on toponymic commemoration as a measure of conciliation for a politically divided nation and as an arena where political struggles between Left and Right were waged. The article further elaborates on public criticism of the commemoration project, which was mainly directed against what seemed excessive commemoration and inappropriate naming practices. Focused on the extraordinary circumstances of the political assassination of a head of government, this paper offers insights into how toponymic commemoration in a politically divided society unfolds between a demonstration of national consensus and expression of political conflict. It also directs attention to the question of appropriateness of commemorative naming practices in a democratic society.

Protein kinase CK2: a catalyst for biology, medicine and structural biochemistry

Protein kinase signaling in the cell is well recognized as a key mechanism through which a whole variety of cellular functions are mediated. Considering that the phosphoproteome constitutes a significant part of the expressed genome, it is not surprising that this mode of signaling is involved in virtually all aspects of normal and abnormal cell activities. In particular, dysregulation of these signals in the cell appears to play a key role in diverse types of disease processes, and to that end, protein kinases have emerged as attractive targets in the generation of therapeutic approaches. In this context, protein kinase CK2 (adopted acronym for the former inappropriate name casein kinase II) has continued to attract the increasing attention for its involvement in diverse cellular activities in both the normal and the disease states. CK2 is one among the most highly conserved molecules and is present in every cell at an apparently strictly regulated level depending on the cell type. A great deal of current information suggests that the moderate upregulation of the enzyme level provokes enhanced oncogenic potential in cells, whereas its downregulation promotes cell death. Increased levels of CK2 have been observed in various cancers that have been examined and appear to be related to prognosis; thus, it would seem that elevated CK2 plays a dual role in cancer cell phenotype—promotion of cell growth and proliferation as well as potent suppression of apoptosis. The demonstration of the druggability of CK2 has stimulated efforts directed towards generating strategies to target CK2 for cancer therapy. Likewise, new roles for CK2 in diverse biologic processes continue to be recognized. Indeed, based on the current observations in the literature, it is fair to state that CK2 has emerged as a ‘‘master regulator’’ of cell functions. These various developments are highlighted in the contributions to the present Focused Issue of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. The articles published in this Focused Issue are selected from the presentations at the Sixth International Conference on CK2. The Sixth International Conference on Protein kinase CK2 was held 7–10 September 2010, at Wahn Castle in the historic city of Cologne, Germany, as ‘‘A symposium of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology’’ organized by the Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry of the University of Cologne. The theme of the Sixth International Conference on CK2 was ‘‘Protein kinase CK2—a catalyst for biology, medicine and structural biochemistry’’. The meeting was attended by investigators who discussed recent developments in the field of CK2, and had a truly international representation of scientists from 20 different countries and several continents. The meeting was opened with welcome addresses by Professor Dr. Christiane Bongartz (Dean of Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Cologne), by Professor Dr. Gunter Schwarz (Director in Chief of the Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University of Cologne), and by Dr. Karsten Niefind (Institute of Biochemistry, local organizer of the CK2 conference). Prior to the start of the regular meeting program, the participants K. Ahmed (&) Minneapolis VA Health Care System and University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA e-mail: ahmedk@umn.edu

NEW BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC DATA FROM THE REITANO FLYSCH AUCT. (SICILY, ITALY): A KEY TO A REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF THE SICILIDE UNITS

The study of palynomorphs and calcareous nannofossils recovered from the volcano-arenitic succession outcropping at Troina and Cerami (Sicily) documents Rupelian assemblages comparable to those published for the Tusa Tuffite. This new evidence, combined with petrographic, geochemical and sedimentological affinities documented in the literature, eventually proves the genetic relationships between these units. Accordingly, the new name Troina-Tusa Formation is proposed to include all these lower Oligocene volcano-sedimentary units and to replace inappropriate names formerly used. The Troina-Tusa Formation conformably lies on a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate turbidite succession, lacking volcanic detritus, reported in the literature with different names (Polizzi Formation, Varicoloured Shales, Troina-Tusa Flysch) and different ages (ranging from Eocene to Early Miocene). Palynomorphs and nannofossils recovered from its uppermost part, indicate an earliest Oligocene age. The denomination Polizzi Formation is recommended for this unit that includes also the Varicoloured Shales (Eocene-basal Oligocene). The appearance of conglomerates and volcano-arenites in the basal portion of the Troina-Tusa Formation, immediately above the top of the Polizzi Formation, marks a sudden reorganization of the Rupelian depositional systems related to the rise and erosion of a volcanic belt. Apparently, no biostratigraphically detectable hiatus is associated to this boundary. Differences in the composition of sandstones, sedimentary features and relationships with the substratum do exist between the ‘internal’ Reitano Flysch, outcropping in the type-area on the northern slope of the Nebrodi Mountains, and the volcano-arenitic successions of Cerami and Troina, reported by some authors as ‘external’ Reitano Flysch. These differences are widely documented in the literature, where the ‘internal’ Reitano Flysch is shown to lack volcanic detritus and to rest unconformably on the deformed Monte Soro Flysch. Since the definition of the Troina-Tusa Formation now includes the external outcrops (Cerami, Troina, Ancipa Lake), the adjectives ‘internal’ and ‘external’ become disused, and the name Reitano Flysch is restricted to the successions lacking volcanic detritus exposed in the type-area of Reitano, Pettineo, Caronia and Capizzi. Palynomorphs and nannofossils recovered from the Pettineo section, suggest a Rupelian age also for the Reitano Flysch.

Lessons from Pandemic H1N1 2009 to Improve Prevention, Detection, and Response to Influenza Pandemics from a One Health Perspective

In April 2009, a novel influenza A subtype H1N1 triple reassortant virus (novel H1N1 2009), composed of genes from swine, avian, and human influenza A viruses, emerged in humans in the United States and Mexico and spread person-to-person around the world to become the first influenza pandemic of the 21st century. The virus is believed to have emerged from a reassortment event involving a swine virus some time in the past 10 to 20 years, but pigs, pork, and pork products have not been involved with infection or spread of the virus to or among people. Because countries quickly implemented recently developed pandemic influenza plans, the disease was detected and reported and public health authorities instituted control measures in a timely fashion. But the news media's unfortunate and inappropriate naming of the disease as the “swine flu” led to a drop in the demand for pork and several countries banned pork imports from affected countries, resulting in serious negative economic impacts on the pork industry. With the continual circulation and interspecies transmission of human, swine, and avian influenza viruses in countries around the world, there are calls for strengthening influenza surveillance in pigs, birds, and other animals to aid in monitoring and assessing the risk of future pandemic virus emergence involving different species. We identify and discuss several lessons to be learned from pandemic H1N1 2009 from a One Health perspective, as stronger collaboration among human, animal, and environmental health sectors is necessary to more effectively prevent or detect and respond to influenza pandemics and thus improve human, animal, and environmental health and well-being.

The pragmatics of connotation

The connotations of a language expression are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and prejudices about the contexts in which the expression is typically used. The connotation of a language expression is clearly distinct from its sense, denotation and reference. For example, Mike and Michael can have the same reference but different connotations. John is an unsuitable name for your new-born daughter; so is Springtime in Paris an inappropriate name for a 1200cc Harley-Davidson motorbike or an auto-repair shop. Identifying the connotations of a term is to identify the community attitude towards it. For instance the connotations of English octopus and the Japanese translation equivalent tako are very different: an octopus is a sinister, alien creature; tako is edible and endearing. Connotation is intimately involved with notions of appropriateness in language use; i.e. with pragmatic effect. For instance, racist dysphemisms occur when a speaker refers to or implicates the hearer or some third person's race, ethnicity, or nationality in such terms as to cause a face affront. Many such ‘racist’ terms can be disarmed by being used, without irony, as in-group solidarity markers by the targeted group; e.g. the use of nigger/ nigga among African Americans. The negative connotations of some existing word often lead to its replacement. Although Jesus Christ! is blasphemous; Gee whiz and By jingo are not. From a purely rational viewpoint, if one of these is blasphemous, then all of them are. But the pragmatic effects, i.e. connotations are different. Connotation is a thoroughly pragmatic category of meaning.