In Vitro Organic Matter (OM) Digestibility Research Articles

Effects of bismuth subsalicylate and calcium-ammonium nitrate on ruminal in vitro fermentation of bahiagrass hay with supplemental molasses

There is a need to increase efficiency of beef production. Decreasing losses of CH4 and improving byproduct utilization are popular strategies. Two feed additives were tested to find potential solutions. Three randomized complete block design experiments were performed using batch culture systems to evaluate the effects of bismuth subsalicylate (BSS) and calcium-ammonium nitrate (CAN) on in vitro ruminal fermentation of bahiagrass hay and supplemental molasses. The first experiment contained four treatments: (1) basal substrate; (2) basal substrate with 0.75% urea (DM basis); (3) basal substrate with 1.2% CAN and 0.38% urea (DM basis); and (4) basal substrate with 2.4% CAN (DM basis). Treatments 2, 3, and 4 were isonitrogenous. The second experiment had a 4 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments with 4 concentrations of BSS (0.00, 0.33, 0.66, and 1.00%; DM basis) and 3 concentrations of CAN (0.0, 1.2, and 2.4%; DM basis). The third experiment had the following treatments: (1) basal substrate; (2) basal substrate with 0.05% BSS (DM basis); (3) basal substrate with 0.10% BSS (DM basis); and (4) basal substrate with 0.33% BSS (DM basis). For all experiments, basal substrate consisted of Pensacola bahiagrass hay (Paspalum notatum Flüggé; 80% substrate DM) and molasses (20% substrate DM). All data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. In Exp. 1, in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) was linearly reduced (P < 0.001) with the inclusion of CAN, and CH4, in mmol/g OM fermented, was decreased linearly (P < 0.001). The volatile fatty acid (VFA) profile was not impacted by the inclusion of nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) or CAN (P > 0.05). In Exp. 2, except for CH4 production (P < 0.05), there were no BSS × CAN interactions. Linear reductions in total gas production (P < 0.001), IVOMD (P < 0.001), and total concentration of VFA (P = 0.007) were observed with the inclusion of BSS up to 1%. The inclusion of BSS decreased H2S production in a quadratic manner (P = 0.024). In Exp. 3, IVOMD was not impacted by the inclusion of BSS (P > 0.05); however, production of H2S was linearly decreased (P = 0.004) with the inclusion of BSS up to 0.33%. In conclusion, in vitro fermentation was negatively impacted by the inclusions of BSS, up to 1%, and CAN, up to 2.4%; however, BSS decreased production of H2S when included up to 0.33% without impeding fermentation, while CAN decreased CH4 production.

Intra-species variations in yield and quality determinants in Vicia species: 4. Woolly-pod vetch ( Vicia villosa ssp. dasycarpa Roth)

Intra-species variations in phenology, yield and quality determinants of hay, grain and straw were examined in woolly-pod vetch ( Vicia villosa ssp. dasycarpa), and accessions were selected based on yield and quality attributes. Twenty-five woolly-pod vetch accessions were grown over four cropping seasons in a Mediterranean environment in north-west Syria. Days to flowering and pod maturity, hay yield at flowering, as well as yields of grain and straw, and harvest index were determined at maturity. Concentrations of hay and straw crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD), and grain CP were analyzed. Accessions varied (P<0.05) in days to flowering (85–89 days) and pod maturity (131–134 days), harvest index (0.18–0.23), as well as yields (kg/ha) of hay (3310–4855), straw (3224–3746) and grain (820–1099). Concentrations (g/kg DM) of hay CP (174–183), ADFom (264–278), aNDFom (417–433) and IVOMD (683–708 g/kg OM); straw CP (107–122), ADFom (330–388), aNDFom (457–484) and IVOMD (384–435 g/kg OM); and grain CP (280–303) also differed (P<0.05) among accessions. Grain yield and harvest index ( r = 0.64, P<0.001), hay IVOMD and ADFom ( r = −0.68, P<0.001), and straw IVOMD and aNDFom ( r = −0.73, P<0.01) were correlated. Our series of papers on Vicia species show intra-species variations in phenology, as well as yields and quality determinants of hay, grain and straw in bitter vetch, narbon vetch, common vetch, and woolly-pod vetch, implying that promising accessions could be identified based on these criteria. Bitter vetch accessions 508, 2510, 2511, 2514, 2515, 2517, 2519, 2520 and 2522; narbon vetch accessions 2386, 2389, 2390, 2382, 2392, 2463, 2470, 2472, 2561 and 2704; common vetch accessions 2023 and 2567; and woolly-pod vetch accessions 2438, 2439, 2443 and 2445 have better potential for production of hay and grain in Mediterranean environments. Overall, accessions of bitter vetch, narbon vetch and common vetch show better potential for production of grain than accessions of woolly-pod vetch.

Intra-species variations in yield and quality determinants in Vicia species: 3. Common vetch ( Vicia sativa ssp. sativa L.)

Variations in days to flowering and pod maturity, harvest index, as well as yields and quality of hay, grain and straw among common vetch ( Vicia sativa ssp. sativa L.) accessions were examined, and accessions were identified on the basis of yield and quality attributes. Forty-five common vetch accessions were grown over four cropping seasons in a Mediterranean environment in north-west Syria. Crops were harvested at flowering to estimate hay yield, and at maturity to estimate grain and straw yields, and harvest index. Concentrations of hay and straw crude protein (CP), acid (ADFom) and neutral (aNDFom) detergent fibre, and in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD), and grain CP were determined. Accessions varied (P<0.05) in days to flowering (78–96 days) and pod maturity (132–140 days), harvest index (0.17–0.37), as well as yields (kg/ha) of hay (2245–3383), straw (2572–4028), and grain (808–1743). Concentrations (g/kg DM) of hay CP (141–188), ADFom (262–287), aNDFom (364–435), and IVOMD (725–782 g/kg OM); straw CP (62–127), ADFom (334–353), aNDFom (387–505), and IVOMD (437–511 g/kg OM); and grain CP (266–316) also differed (P<0.05) among accessions. Harvest index was correlated with days to flowering ( r = −0.74, P<0.001), and grain yield ( r = 0.87, P<0.001). Straw CP was correlated with ADFom ( r = −0.87, P<0.001), and aNDFom ( r = −0.74, P<0.001). Grain CP was correlated with straw CP ( r = 0.91, P<0.001), and ADFom ( r = −0.84, P<0.001). Results revealed intra-species variations in days to flowering and pod maturity, harvest index, as well as yields and quality determinants of hay, grain and straw in common vetch, and showed that promising accessions can be selected in terms of yield and quality. Accessions 2023 and 2567 have better potential for hay and grain production in Mediterranean environments.

Seed and forage yield, and forage quality determinants of nine legume shrubs in a non-tropical dryland environment

The objective was to identify legume shrub species for development of agroforestry technologies based on seed and forage (leaves and twigs<10mm diameter) yield, and determinants of forage quality. Ten individual plants of Bituminaria bituminosa ‘Ecotypes 1’, B. bituminosa ‘Ecotypes 2’, Medicago citrina, and M. arborea from Spain; Colutea istria and Onobrychis aurantiaca from Syria; C. istria from Jordan; Chamaecytisus mollis from Morocco; and Coronilla glauca from France were randomly selected from plots established in a non-tropical dryland environment in northwest Syria in 2000. Five individual plants of each species were cut back to 0.5m above ground in March 2004. Coppice regrowths were pruned in December 2004 and April 2005 to determine forage yield and proportion of forage in the total above ground biomass (PEFB). Forage samples were analyzed for concentrations of crude protein (CP), lignin(sa), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD), and in vitro 24h gas production (IVGP24h). Matured seeds were hand harvested from the remaining five plants of each species to estimate seed yield. Forage (21–250kg DM/ha) and seed (0–200kg DM/ha) yields; PEFB (0.22–0.96); and concentrations of CP (85–115g/kg DM), lignin(sa) (14–42g/kg DM), ADFom (94–170g/kg DM), aNDFom (122–217g/kg DM), IVOMD (456–617g/kg OM), and IVGP24h (27–42ml 200mg/DM) varied (P<0.05) among shrub species. The IVOMD and IVGP24h were positively correlated (r=0.75, P<0.032), whereas IVOMD and IVGP24h were negatively correlated with ADFom, lignin(sa) and aNDFom. In terms of forage and seed yields and determinants of forage quality, C. istria from Jordan, M. arborea, B. bituminosa ‘Ecotype-2’, C. istria and O. aurantiaca have higher potential than C. mollis, C. glauca and B. Bituminosa ‘Ecotype-1’ for the development of agroforestry technologies in non-tropical dry areas.

Intra-species variations in yield and quality determinants in Vicia species: 2. Narbon vetch ( Vicia narbonensis L.)

Intra-species variations in days to flowering and pod maturity, harvest index, as well as grain and straw yields and quality in narbon vetch ( Vicia narbonensis L.) were determined, and accessions were identified based on yield and quality attributes. Thirty-six narbon vetch accessions were grown over five cropping seasons in a non-tropical dryland environment in north-west Syria, and were harvested at maturity to determine straw and grain yields. Concentrations of straw crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD), as well as grain CP and tannins were analysed. Days to flowering and pod maturity, harvest index (0.30–0.37), yields of straw (3311–4256 kg DM/ha) and grain (1470–1831 kg DM/ha) varied ( P < 0.05) among accessions. Concentrations (g/kg DM) of straw CP (53–70), ADFom (253–269), aNDFom (436–532) and IVOMD (468–532 g/kg OM), as well as grain CP (307–331) and tannins (3.38–4.47) also varied ( P < 0.05) among accessions. Grain yield and harvest index ( r = 0.43, P < 0.05), as well as straw CP and aNDFom ( r = −0.56, P < 0.01), and IVOMD and aNDFom ( r = −0.62, P < 0.01) were weakly correlated. Results showed intra-species variations in grain and straw yields and quality determinants in narbon vetch, and demonstrated that promising narbon accessions can be selected for yield and quality. Accessions 2386, 2389, 2390, 2382, 2392, 2463, 2470, 2472, 2561, and 2704, had better potential for grain production in non-tropical dry areas.

Intra-species variations in yield and quality in Lathyrus species: 2. Dwarf chickling ( L. cicera L.)

Variations in days to first flowering and pod maturity, as well as yields of hay, grain and straw and hay and straw concentrations of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), and in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD), and grain CP and β-N-oxalyl diamino propionic acid (β-ODAP) among 25 dwarf chickling ( Lathyrus cicera L.) accessions grown over five cropping seasons in north-west Syria were examined. Accessions varied (P<0.05) in days to flowering (81–88 days) and pod maturity (124–134 days), yields (kg/ha) of hay (2689–3385), straw (2873–3330), and grain (1357–1881). Concentrations (g/kg DM) of hay CP (172–198), ADFom (156–180), aNDFom (268–295) and IVOMD (741–779 g/kg OM) and straw CP (65–75), ADFom (298–332), aNDFom (508–610) and IVOMD (512–568 g/kg OM) and grain CP (295–311) differed (P<0.05) among accessions. Grain yield was correlated with days to pod maturity ( r = 0.63, P<0.001) and harvest index ( r = 0.65, P<0.01). Hay IVOMD and aNDFom ( r = −0.84, P<0.01), and straw IVOMD and ADFom ( r = −0.73, P<0.01) were correlated. Yields and quality of hay, grain and straw could be used to promising dwarf chickling accessions. In terms of yield and quality, dwarf chickling accessions 629, 632, 641 and 643 have better potential for hay and grain production in non-tropical dry areas.

Intra-species variations in yield and quality in Lathyrus species: 1. Grasspea ( L. sativus L.)

Variations in days to flowering and pod maturity, hay grain and straw yields; and concentrations of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), and in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) in hay and straw; and grain CP and β-N-oxalyl diamino propionic acid (β-ODAP) were examined in 25 accessions of grasspea ( Lathyrus sativus L.) grown over five cropping seasons in a non-tropical dry area in north-west Syria. Days to flowering (92–103 days) and pod maturity (145–157 days); and yields (kg/ha) of hay (1927–2658), straw (2891–3421), and grain (657–978) varied ( P<0.05) among accessions. Concentrations (g/kg DM) of hay CP (193–212), ADFom (195–211), aNDFom (338–368) and IVOMD (707–747, g/kg OM); straw CP (73–97), ADFom (245–278), aNDFom (523–613) and IVOMD (510–575 g/kg OM); and grain CP (280–296) also varied ( P<0.05) among accessions. Days to flowering was correlated with grain yield ( r = −0.54, P<0.01) and harvest index ( r = −0.73, P<0.01). Straw CP was correlated with hay CP ( r = 0.64, P<0.001) and IVOMD ( r = 0.68, P<0.001), and straw IVOMD was correlated with aNDFom ( r = −0.73, P<0.001). Overall, days to flowering and pod maturity, as well as hay, grain and straw yields, and quality, varied among grasspea accessions. Yields and quality of hay, grain and straw could be used to identify promising grasspea accessions, and grasspea accessions 528, 535, 553, 559, 561 and 563 have greater potential for production of hay and grain in non-tropical dry areas.

Annual feed legume yield and quality in dryland environments in north-west Syria: 2. Grain and straw yield and straw quality

Little is known about on-farm performance of promising accessions of common vetch ( Vicia sativa L.), narbon vetch ( Vicia narbonensis L.) and grasspea ( Lathyrus sativus L.) that are adapted to the non-tropical dry areas of Central and West Asia, and North Africa, where mean annual rainfall is 200–350 mm. An on-farm study was conducted over two growing seasons in non-tropical wet and dry semi-arid environments in north-west Syria to determine effects of 0, 30, and 60 kg P/ha phosphate fertilizer rates on grain and straw yields and concentrations of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), and in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) in the straws of 11 promising accessions of common vetch (2556, 2604 and Local), narbon vetch (2561, 2383 and 2380) and grasspea (445, 476, 519, 527 and Local), with the aim of identifying accessions with suitable adaptation and grain and quality straw yields for specific environments. A split-plot design with phosphate fertilizer rates as main-plots and accessions as sub-plots was used. Annual total rainfall during the two cropping seasons averaged 283 mm in the wet, and 140 mm in the dry environments. Grain and straw yields and straw quality varied ( P<0.05) among the accessions and species within environments and cropping seasons. The accession × phosphate fertilizer rate and growing season × phosphate fertilizer rate interactions had no effect on grain and straw yields and straw quality. The vetches produced more ( P<0.05) grain and straw than the grasspea, but the grasspea straw CP and IVOMD were higher ( P<0.05) than those of the vetches in both environments. Grain yield ranged from 472 to 2205 kg DM/ha and 254 to 1346 kg DM/ha in the wet and dry environments, respectively. Ranges for straw CP, ADFom, aNDFom and IVOMD in the wet environment were 71–130, 305–390, 431–438 g/kg DM and 486–533 g/kg OM, respectively. Corresponding ranges in the dry environment were 82–151, 272–369, 359–478 g/kg DM and 486–549 g/kg OM, respectively. In both environments, the ADFom and aNDFom were correlated to the CP ( r = −0.44 to −0.90, P < 0.01) and IVOMD ( r = −0.28 to −0.86, P < 0.01), and the CP and IVOMD were correlated ( r = 0.35–0.75, P < 0.01) in the three species. In terms of grain and quality straw yields, narbon vetch accessions 2383 and 2380 had high potential in both environments.

Annual feed legume yield and quality in dryland environments in north-west Syria: 1. Herbage yield and quality

Promising accessions of common vetch ( Vicia sativa L.), narbon vetch ( Vicia narbonensis L.) and grasspea ( Lathyrus sativus L.) adapted to non-tropical dry areas of Central and West Asia, and North Africa, where mean annual rainfall is 200–350 mm have been identified, but their herbage yield and quality under on-farm conditions are not documented. An on-farm study was conducted over two growing seasons in non-tropical wet and dry semi-arid environments in north-west Syria to evaluate effects of 0, 30, and 60 kg P/ha phosphate fertilizer rates on herbage yield and concentrations of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADFom), neutral detergent fibre (aNDFom), and in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) in the herbage of 11 promising accessions of common vetch (2556, 2604 and Local), narbon vetch (2561, 2383 and 2380) and grasspea (445, 476, 519, 527 and Local), with the aim of identifying accessions with suitable adaptation and quality herbage yield for specific environments. A split-plot design with phosphate fertilizer rates as main-plots and accessions as sub-plots was used. For each species, herbage yield was determined when 0.50 of the plants had flowered. Annual total rainfall averaged 283 mm and 140 mm for the wet and dry environments respectively during the two growing seasons. Herbage yield and the determinants of herbage quality varied (P<0.05) among the accessions and species within environments and growing seasons. The phosphate fertilizer rate×accessions and phosphate fertilizer rate×growing season interactions had no effect on herbage yield and quality. Herbage yield ranged from 695 to 3471 kg DM/ha and 404 to 2595 kg DM/ha in the wet and dry environments respectively. In the wet environment, the CP, ADFom, aNDFom and IVOMD concentrations ranges were: 156–258, 223–292, 243–349 g/kg DM and 603–670 g/kg OM respectively. Corresponding ranges for the dry environment were: 153–267, 186–275, 250–323 g/kg DM, and 565–648 g/kg OM respectively. The CP and aNDFom were associated ( r = −0.45 to −0.57, P<0.01) in the three species, while the ADFom and IVOMD were correlated ( r = −0.77, P<0.01) in the vetches. Grasspea accession 445 and narbon vetch accessions 2561 and 2380 showed high potential for quality herbage production in both environments.

Effect of Trichoderma spp. inoculation on the chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of wheat straw

To evaluate the cultural ability of some Trichoderma isolates on wheat straw and the influence of their exogenous enzyme activities on chemical compositions as well as in vitro digestibility and upgrading of the nutritive value of lignocellulolytic materials, sterilized and non sterilized wheat straw were inoculated withTrichoderma isolates (including Trichoderma harzianum isolate T447, T. hamatumisolate T 614, T. hamatum isolate T625 and T. harzianum isolate T 969). The experimental design used in this study was complete randomized design (CRD) through factorial experiment with 2 factors (factor A = effects of sterilization, factor B = effects of Trichoderma spp.) in three replicates for each treatment. Effects of the Trichoderma isolates on the substrate neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and pH as well as in vitro dry matter (DM) digestibility (IVDMD), in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) and in vitro digestible OM in DM (IVDOMD) were analyzed. The obtained results showed that sterilization of wheat straw could decrease pH, NDF and ADF (P<0.05) but not IVDMD, IVOMD and IVDOMD. The isolates of T447 and T969 showed higher ability in improving the nutritive value of wheat straw. Comparatively, higher reduction in pH was recorded by T614 inoculating sterilized wheat straw. The least NDF content were observed in treated non-sterilized wheat straw with T447, also treated sterilized wheat straw with T447 showed maximum reduction in NDF content. Moreover, higher change in IVDMD, IVOMD and IVDOMD were obtained by T447 grown in sterilized wheat straw substrate. Key words: Trichoderma, wheat straw, dry matter digestibility, organic matter digestibility, digestible organic matter in dry matter.

Effects of culture length of Pleurotus eryngii grown on sugarcane bagasse on in vitro digestibility and chemical composition

Pleurotus eryngii was cultivated on sugarcane bagasse substrate to enhance the digestibility of bagasse. Effects of culture length on the digestibility and chemical composition were determined. Substrate consisting of bagasse and rice bran was incubated at 24 °C for 35 days under semi-anaerobic conditions then transferred to an incubation room at 17 °C to enable the fruit-bodies to emerge. The average yield of the fruit-bodies at the first flush was 74.3 g/culture bottle. The proportion of residual weight of dry matter in the substrate decreased by 0.242 on day 95, and further by 0.053 between days 95 and 155. The proportion of residual weight of lignin decreased by 0.350 on day 95, and further by 0.066 between days 95 and 155. The in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) of the substrate increased from 0.537 on day 0 to 0.693 on day 95. The in vitro digestibility of neutral detergent fiber excluded ash (IVNDFomD) increased from 0.480 to 0.584. The cumulative in vitro gas production (IVGP) for 48 h increased from 144 to 197 ml/g OM. Since there were no differences in IVOMD, IVNDFomD and IVGP between days 95 and 155, it was concluded that 95 days after inoculation was an appropriate culture length, at which spent bagasse substrate could be used as feed for ruminants.

Effect of drying method on estimated nutritive value of browse species using an in vitro gas production technique

Browse species in the Mediterranean area are an important feed source, especially during the summer/autumn period when herbaceous species senesce and do not meet animal nutrient requirements. The effect of laboratory drying method on estimated nutritive value of Arbutus andrachne, an evergreen shrub, Gleditsia triacanthos (acanthos), a deciduous leguminous shrub, and Medicago arborea, an evergreen leguminous shrub, was determined. Hand-plucked samples collected during the rapid growth period in May, and later when growth had ceased in August, were dried in either an oven or freeze-drier. The nutritive value of the samples was determined by standard laboratory techniques and an in vitro gas production technique after incubation for 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h by determining the kinetics of fermentation with the equation p = a + b(1 − e − ct ). Crude protein (CP) was higher ( P<0.01) in legumes (154 g/kg DM for G. triacanthos and 216 g/kg DM for M. arborea) than in the evergreen species (84 g/kg DM for A. andrachne). As a result of maturation, CP decreased while neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) increased in all species. Freeze-drying had no effect on CP content, but it reduced ( P<0.05) concentrations of NDF and ADL. Oven drying depressed in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) in all species ( P<0.01). Drying method had no effect on gas production from A. andrachne samples. However, freeze-dried G. triacanthos and M. arborea samples produced more ( P<0.05) gas at both stages of maturity compared to oven dried ones. Drying method affected a and potential gas a + b ( P<0.01), but b and c were not affected. The three species had similar c rates, but different potential gas production (i.e., a + b). Sample drying technique affected leguminous species and their in vitro fermentation, but there was no affect in a non-leguminous species.

Conversion of Japanese red cedar ( Cryptomeria japonica) into a feed for ruminants by white-rot basidiomycetes

The potential of five white-rot fungi to convert Japanese red cedar ( Cryptomeria japonica) into feed for ruminants was determined. Pleurotus ostreatus (ATCC 66376), Pholiota nameko (IFO 30373), Dichomitus squalens (CBS 432.34), Lentinula edodes (IFO 6654) and Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (ATCC 90467) were inoculated into chips of cedar sapwood. L. edodes was cultured at 25 °C, and the other fungi at 28 °C, for 4, 8, 12, or 20 weeks. The in vitro organic matter (OM) digestibility (IVOMD) in cedar wood cultured without fungus were between 0.047 and 0.068, while it was elevated to 0.446 by culturing with C. subvermispora and to 0.281 by culturing with L. edodes for 20 weeks. In contrast, the IVOMD were 0.200, or lower, in cedar wood cultured with P. ostreatus, P. nameko, or D. squalens. The in vitro gas production (IVGP) in cedar wood cultured with P. ostreatus, P. nameko, or D. squalens was 37 ml/g OM, or lower, while that in cedar not inoculated with fungus was between 4 and 17 ml/g OM. In contrast, the IVGP in cedar wood cultured with C. subvermispora for 20 weeks increased to 107 ml/g OM, and that in cedar wood cultured with L. edodes increased to 58 ml/g OM. Lignin degradability in cedar wood cultured with C. subvermispora and L. edodes for 20 weeks were 0.578 and 0.288, respectively. These changes in IVOMD and IVGP demonstrate that a selective white-rot fungus, C. subvermispora has the ability to convert cedar wood into feed for ruminants, although further increase is required before the cultured cedar wood would have widespread feed potential.