In-kind Food Research Articles

Is in-kind kinder than cash? The impact of money vs. food aid on social emotions and aid take-up

Over the past decade, there has been a shift in the way charities deliver humanitarian aid. Historically, the most prevalent way to help the global poor was by providing in-kind asset transfers. Recently, alternatives to in-kind aid, such as cash aid, have been increasing in prevalence. Although there has been widespread endorsement from the academic community and the public on the popularizing model of giving cash aid, one perspective remains untouched: the recipient's perspective. Thus, the present research explores how food-insecure individuals feel when receiving money vs. in-kind food aid to help meet their hunger and nutrition needs. Specifically, we explore the degree of positive (e.g., feeling cared for) and negative (e.g., feeling ashamed) social emotions felt when receiving the aid opportunity and how willing recipients are to accept monetary (vs. food) aid. Results from five preregistered experiments (N = 3,110)-a field experiment in Kenya and four online experiments in the United States-find that monetary (vs. food) aid elicits comparatively more of a market-pricing relationship and less of a communal sharing relationship and, hence, makes people feel less positive and more negative social emotions when receiving the help. Subsequently, recipients are less likely to take up monetary (vs. food) aid from a charity. However, we find that this effect does not persist when receiving government aid: Recipients are similarly willing to accept money and in-kind food aid from the government. This research suggests that future scholarship ought to examine ways to improve psychological experiences when receiving money from charity.

Emergency Food Support Preference and Usage During COVID-19: A Neighborhood Study of Low-Income Black Mothers? Use of School-Based Food Distribution and P-EBT.

COVID-19 disrupted families' food supply. Based on in-depth interviews with 45 Black low-income mothers of young children in an underserved Houston, Texas, neighborhood from April 2020 to June 2021, we compared two aid programs-Pandemic Electronic Benefits Transfer cash assistance and in-kind food distributions. We found that mothers preferred cash assistance for boosting existing food strategies, while food distributions presented new challenges for already burdened families. We argue that food assistance interventions can be more successful and equitable by integrating service user context, needs, and preferences. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(S3):S227-S230. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307458).

Parental perceptions of a novel subsidy program to address the financial burden of milk allergy: a qualitative study

BackgroundApproximately 6–7% of Canadian children have food allergy. These families face substantial burdens due to the additional costs incurred purchasing allergy-friendly products necessary for management compared to families without food allergies. In the year prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, these costs were equivalent to an average of $200 monthly compared to families without food allergy. As food prices continue to rise, rates of food insecurity also increase, disproportionately affecting households with food allergy who have limited choices at food banks.MethodsFamilies living or working in Winnipeg, Canada with an annual net income of about $70,000 or less the year prior to recruitment and a child under the age of 6 years old with a physician diagnosed milk allergy were recruited between January and February 2022. Participating families received bi-weekly home deliveries for six months, from March to August 2022, of subsidy kits containing ~$50 worth of milk allergy-friendly products. Semi-structured interviews, completed ± 2 weeks from the final delivery, were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed thematically.ResultsEight interviews, averaging 32 min (range 22–54 min), were completed with mothers from all different families. On average, mothers were 29.88 ± 4.39 years old and children were 2.06 ± 1.32 years old. All children reported allergies in addition to milk. Based on the data from these interviews, we identified 3 themes: food allergy causes substantial burden for families, “I have to get his allergy-friendly food first before getting to my basic needs”, and perceived emotional and financial benefits of a milk allergy-friendly food subsidy program.ConclusionsThis study, along with previous research, suggests that there is a need for assistance for families managing milk allergies. It also provides important information to inform development of programs which can address these financial challenges. Our in-kind food subsidy was perceived as having a positive impact on food costs and stress associated with food allergy management, however, parents identified a need for more variety in the food packages. Future programs should strive to incorporate a greater variety of products to address this limitation.

Apes reciprocate food positively and negatively.

Reciprocal food exchange is widespread in human societies but not among great apes, who may view food mainly as a target for competition. Understanding the similarities and differences between great apes' and humans' willingness to exchange food is important for our models regarding the origins of uniquely human forms of cooperation. Here, we demonstrate in-kind food exchanges in experimental settings with great apes for the first time. The initial sample consisted of 13 chimpanzees and 5 bonobos in the control phases, and the test phases included 10 chimpanzees and 2 bonobos, compared with a sample of 48 human children aged 4 years. First, we replicated prior findings showing no spontaneous food exchanges in great apes. Second, we discovered that when apes believe that conspecifics have 'intentionally' transferred food to them, positive reciprocal food exchanges (food-for-food) are not only possible but reach the same levels as in young children (approx. 75-80%). Third, we found that great apes engage in negative reciprocal food exchanges (no-food for no-food) but to a lower extent than children. This provides evidence for reciprocal food exchange in great apes in experimental settings and suggests that while a potential mechanism of fostering cooperation (via positive reciprocal exchanges) may be shared across species, a stabilizing mechanism (via negative reciprocity) is not.

Electronic Food Vouchers: Evidence from an At-Scale Experiment in Indonesia

We compare how in-kind food assistance and an electronic voucher-based program affect the delivery of aid in practice. The Government of Indonesia randomized across 105 districts the transition from in-kind rice to approximately equivalent electronic vouchers redeemable for rice and eggs at a network of private agents. Targeted households received 46 percent more assistance in voucher areas. For the bottom 15 percent of households at baseline, poverty fell 20 percent. Voucher recipients received higher-quality rice, and increased consumption of eggs. The results suggest moving from a manual in-kind to electronic voucher-based program reduced poverty through increased adherence to program design. (JEL H53, I18, I32, I38, O12)

Refugee Food Security Perceptions on Food Rationing Practices in Refugees Camp in Western Tanzania

This paper is based on the study on perception of refugees on food availability, accessibility, and utilization, forms of food rations. It assesses coping strategies
 on reduced food rationing and food security for refugee in Nyarugusu Refugee
 Camp in Kasulu district, Kigoma region in Western Tanzania. Data collection involved a total of 395 refugee households in the study area who were interviewed using structured questionnaires. The collected data were processed and analysed using SPSS software in which descriptive statistics, mainly frequencies were produced and the results presented in bar charts. The study revealed that, the common form of food rationing in practice was in-kind food ration, the most preferred form was a combination of both In-kind food ration and Cash. It was also revealed that the existing food aid ration was not satisfactory for family use. The food prices in the camp market were not affordable for the family food consumption especially for the majority with low incomes compounded with large families. As a result, upon receiving rationed food they partly sold it in order to get cash which they used to buy other basic goods in the market; or simply exchanged goods in- kind in order to meet human wants.

Global food price surge, in-kind transfers and household welfare: Evidence from India

This paper studies the impact of high global rice and wheat prices on household welfare in India. I use the 2007–08 surge in global food prices and household share of area under rice and wheat at the baseline to show that rice and wheat cultivating households gain from high prices. These welfare gains mainly accrue to net producers. I observe that net producer households were able to maintain their per capita spending and consumption of rice and wheat by decreasing consumption of market purchased rice and wheat and increasing consumption of government-subsidized rice and wheat. Net consumers, on the other hand, experienced a decline in the total per capita consumption of rice and wheat even though they substituted their market purchases with homegrown produce and subsidized grains. The role of in-kind food transfers in insulating households from high prices was evident for both net producers and consumers. The combined effect of substitution within food staples from different sources was that both net consumer and producer households could maintain their total calorie intakes and resist an increase in the total food expenditure. Finally, I find evidence that high rice and wheat prices induced working-age adult males in net producer households to increase total workdays and workdays on their own farm.

The effect of gender targeting of food transfers on child nutritional status: experimental evidence from the Bolivian amazon

ABSTRACT Some research suggests women are more likely to allocate additional resources to their children than are men. This perception has influenced policies such as in-kind food transfer programmes and cash transfer programmes, which often target women recipients. We assess whether targeting in-kind rice transfers to female versus male adult household members has a differential impact on children’s short-run nutritional status. We estimate the impacts of transfers of edible rice and rice seeds, randomly allocated to female or male adults, on three anthropometric indicators: BMI-for-age, arm-muscle area, and triceps skinfold thickness. The trial includes 481 children aged 3–11 years in a horticultural-foraging society of native Amazonians in Bolivia. On average, the gender of the transfer recipient does not influence child anthropometric dimensions, possibly due to norms of cooperation and sharing within and between households. We find limited evidence of heterogeneity in impacts. Transfers to women help children who were growth stunted at baseline to partially catch-up to their better-nourished age-sex peers and help boys (but not girls) and children in higher-income households increase their BMI-for-age. The results of this research point to the importance of considering cultural context in determining if allocating food transfers according to gender are most effective.

Food vs. Food Stamps: Evidence from an At-Scale Experiment in Indonesia

Governments seeking to provide food assistance have a choice between providing in-kind food directly to beneficiaries, or providing vouchers that can be used to purchase food on the market. To understand the differences between these policies, the Government of Indonesia randomly phased in the transition from in-kind delivery of subsidized rice to approximately equivalent vouchers usable to buy rice and eggs across 105 districts comprising over 3.4 million beneficiary households. We find the transition led to substantial changes in the allocation of aid in practice. The vouchers provided concentrated assistance to targeted households, who received 45 percent more assistance in voucher areas than in in-kind districts. As a result, for households in the bottom 15 percent at baseline, poverty fell by 20 percent. Vouchers also allowed households to purchase higher-quality rice, and led to increased consumption of egg-based proteins. We find vouchers have little effect on aggregate rice prices, although we observe modest price increases in remote villages. Overall leakage from the program was not affected, but the administrative costs of benefits delivery substantially fell. In short, the results suggest that the change from in-kind food aid to vouchers led to substantial impacts on poverty through the way it changed how programs were implemented on the ground.

Cash and voucher assistance and children's nutrition status in Somalia.

To address ongoing food insecurity and acute malnutrition in Somalia, a broad range of assistance modalities are used, including in‐kind food, food vouchers, and cash transfers. Evidence of the impact of cash and voucher assistance (CVA) on prevention of acute malnutrition is limited in humanitarian and development settings. This study examined the impact of CVA on prevention of child acute malnutrition in 2017/2018 in the context of the Somalia food crisis. Changes in diet and acute malnutrition were measured over a 4‐month period among children age 6–59 months from households receiving household transfers of approximately US$450 delivered either as food vouchers or a mix of in‐kind food, vouchers, and cash. Baseline to endline change in children's dietary diversity, meal frequency, minimum acceptable diet (MAD), mid‐upper arm circumference (MUAC), and acute malnutrition (MUAC < 12.5 cm) were compared using difference‐in‐difference analysis with inverse probability weighting. There were no statistically significant changes in dietary diversity, meal frequency, or the proportion of children with MAD for either intervention group. Adjusted change in mean MUAC showed increases of 0.5 cm (confidence interval [CI; 0.0, 0.7 cm]) in the food voucher group and 0.1 cm (CI [−0.1, 0.4]) in the mixed transfer group. In adjusted analysis, prevalence of acute malnutrition among children under 5 years increased by 0.7% (CI [−13.4, 14.4%]) among food voucher recipients and decreased by 4.8% (CI [−9.9, 8.1%]) in mixed transfer recipients. The change over time in both mean MUAC and acute malnutrition prevalence was similar for both interventions, suggesting that cash and vouchers had similar effects on child nutrition status.

Food Insecurity Among Older Adults: A Multilevel Analysis of State-Level Interventions.

Objective: To analyze whether state-level social programs for older adults (OAs) in Mexico are associated with a reduction: (a) in the prevalence of severe food insecurity (SFI) and (b) in the magnitude of the effect of municipal marginalization on SFI. Method: Cross-sectional study based on urban OAs (65-100 years) from the 2010 census. Three-level logistic multilevel regression models were estimated to explain SFI. Results: Controlling for individual and municipal characteristics, states with social programs for OAs are generally associated with lower SFI prevalences (odds ratio [OR] = 0.68 [0.48, 0.95]) and mitigate the effect of marginalization on SFI when compared with states with no programs. Compared with in-kind food programs and voucher-based programs, monetary transfers are associated with a significant reduction in SFI prevalence (OR = 0.68 [0.46, 0.99]). Conclusion: States with programs for OAs, mainly monetary transfers, are associated with lower SFI prevalences.

One more tool for the food aid toolbox? Experimental evidence on food aid packaging

International food assistance reaches more than 90 million people per year, much of it through in-kind programs that distribute food. Several key aspects of in-kind programs—what food is shipped, when and from where it is sourced—have been changed to improve program effectiveness and efficiency, becoming helpful tools in the modernized in-kind food assistance toolbox. Packaging—in what food is shipped—remains an unstudied and underused tool despite more than 50 million bags per year passing through in-kind supply chains, affecting program effectiveness and efficiency. We conduct an experiment with 46 shipments using different packaging materials and sizes to measure the effect of packaging on shipment quality, cost, and timeliness. Analyzing the data with randomization tests, we find that, relative to the current materials, new materials maintain shipment quality and cost while improving timeliness and in some cases may reduce cost. One promising material that balances cost and effectiveness is a bag with a biopesticide applied, designed to prevent insects from reproducing. We also find that, relative to the current size, larger bags may improve costs at least in the domestic portion of the supply chain. Donors and their partners should consider packaging as one more tool in the modernized food assistance toolbox. As the toolbox continues to fill, the coming opportunity and challenge to identify situations where the various tools work in complementary ways.

The Medium Term Impacts of Cash and In-kind Food Transfers on Learning

This paper studies the medium-term impact of early-life welfare transfers on children's learning. It studies children who were exposed to the randomized controlled trial of the Mexico's Food Support Program (the Programa de Apoyo Alimentario, PAL), in which households were assigned to receive cash, in-kind food transfers, or nothing (a control). The children are matched with administrative data on primary school standardized tests, which were taken four to 10 years after the experiment began. The findings show that in-kind transfers did not impact test scores, while cash transfers led to a significant and meaningful decrease in test scores. An analysis of the mechanisms driving these results reveals that both transfers led to an increase in child labor, which is likely detrimental to learning. In-kind food transfers, however, induced a greater consumption of several key micronutrients that are vital for brain development, which likely attenuated the negative impacts of child labor on learning.

Assessing the Impact of U.S. Food Assistance Delivery Policies on Child Mortality in Northern Kenya.

The U.S. is the main country in the world that delivers its food assistance primarily via transoceanic shipments of commodity-based in-kind food. This approach is costlier and less timely than cash-based assistance, which includes cash transfers, food vouchers, and local and regional procurement, where food is bought in or nearby the recipient country. The U.S.’s approach is exacerbated by a requirement that half of its transoceanic food shipments need to be sent on U.S.-flag vessels. We estimate the effect of these U.S. food assistance distribution policies on child mortality in northern Kenya by formulating and optimizing a supply chain model. In our model, monthly orders of transoceanic shipments and cash-based interventions are chosen to minimize child mortality subject to an annual budget constraint and to policy constraints on the allowable proportions of cash-based interventions and non-US-flag shipments. By varying the restrictiveness of these policy constraints, we assess the impact of possible changes in U.S. food aid policies on child mortality. The model includes an existing regression model that uses household survey data and geospatial data to forecast the mean mid-upper-arm circumference Z scores among children in a community, and allows food assistance to increase Z scores, and Z scores to influence mortality rates. We find that cash-based interventions are a much more powerful policy lever than the U.S.-flag vessel requirement: switching to cash-based interventions reduces child mortality from 4.4% to 3.7% (a 16.2% relative reduction) in our model, whereas eliminating the U.S.-flag vessel restriction without increasing the use of cash-based interventions generates a relative reduction in child mortality of only 1.1%. The great majority of the gains achieved by cash-based interventions are due to their reduced cost, not their reduced delivery lead times; i.e., the reduction of shipping expenses allows for more food to be delivered, which reduces child mortality.

Are cash-based interventions a feasible approach for expanding humanitarian assistance in Syria?

The conflict in Syria is the largest driver of displacement worldwide with 4.1 million Syrian refugees, more than 6.5 million internally displaced people (IDPs), and 13.5 million people in need (PiN) of protection and humanitarian assistance inside Syria. Over the past decade, cash-based interventions (CBIs), including both conditional and unconditional cash transfers and voucher programs, have become increasingly common. While the cash-based response within Syria to date has been small compared to in-kind assistance, there is widespread interest in expanding the use of CBIs. This study explores the feasibility of cash-based modalities with the aim of informing future humanitarian assistance delivery strategies in northern Syria. The feasibility of CBIs is examined in terms of acceptability, infrastructure, humanitarian agency implementation capacity, value for money, risks, and responsiveness to changes in beneficiary needs. A mixed methods approach was used consisting of a literature review in addition to a household survey and key informant interviews (KIIs) conducted in early 2016 in four governorates of Syria (Aleppo, Hama, Idlib, and Al-Hasakeh). Overall, 64.5% of surveyed households received assistance during the 4-month period from October 2015 through January 2016. In-kind assistance was most common, with 59.2% of households receiving in-kind food aid. More than half of households received only one or two distributions of assistance in any form. Unmet needs were ubiquitous, and food was the priority in 74.1% of households. Despite relatively limited coverage of cash and voucher assistance programs to date, stakeholders voiced a widespread preference for cash transfers as did household survey participants. When analyzed by sector, cash assistance was preferred by survey respondents for all sectors except WASH. The most significant challenge in implementing CBIs in Syria is the lack of a regulated cash transfer system for movement of funds into the country. The bulk of humanitarian money is currently transferred through informal value transfer networks (hawala), which appears to have the capacity to handle larger-scale cash transfer programming. Technical guidance and standardized procedures are needed to ensure due diligence is conducted to mitigate fiduciary risks and ensure accountability to both beneficiaries, donors, and other stakeholders. The possibility of more sustained, continuous assistance provided through cash transfer or voucher mechanisms negates many of the barriers faced in providing in-kind assistance. Consideration of the feasibility of cash as an alternative modality relies on local-level assessment of capacity, resources, political environment, beneficiary needs and preferences, and lessons learned from previous programs in those areas.

Analysis and prediction of food donation behavior for a domestic hunger relief organization

Non-profit hunger relief organizations strive to counteract the negative effects of food insecurity by providing food and services to individuals in need. These organizations rely on the goodwill of donors, that provide cash or in-kind food donations, to help them meet their objectives. Food donations vary considerably over time in terms of their quantity and frequency, thus presenting a challenge as organizations strive to satisfy the needs of the population being served. Using data from a domestic hunger relief organization, we analyze the uncertainty associated with in-kind food donations. A comprehensive numerical study is performed to quantify the extent of uncertainty in terms of the donor, product, and supply chain structure. In addition, several predictive models are developed to estimate the quantity of in-kind donations. Based on our numerical study, we show the relationship between forecast accuracy, donation behavior, and data uncertainty. Additionally, implications on operational efficiency and service delivery are discussed.

Economic impact of refugees

In 2015, the United Nations High Commission for Refugees accommodated over 15 million refugees, mostly in refugee camps in developing countries. The World Food Program provided these refugees with food aid, in cash or in kind. Refugees' impacts on host countries are controversial and little understood. This unique study analyzes the economic impacts of refugees on host-country economies within a 10-km radius of three Congolese refugee camps in Rwanda. Simulations using Monte Carlo methods reveal that cash aid to refugees creates significant positive income spillovers to host-country businesses and households. An additional adult refugee receiving cash aid increases annual real income in the local economy by $205 to $253, significantly more than the $120-$126 in aid each refugee receives. Trade between the local economy and the rest of Rwanda increases by $49 to $55. The impacts are lower for in-kind food aid, a finding relevant to development aid generally.

The way to a man's heart is through his stomach?: a mixed methods study on causal mechanisms through which cash and in-kind food transfers decreased intimate partner violence.

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) is highly prevalent and has detrimental effects on the physical and mental health of women across the world. Despite emerging evidence on the impacts of cash transfers on intimate partner violence, the pathways through which reductions in violence occur remain under-explored. A randomised controlled trial of a cash and in-kind food transfer programme on the northern border of Ecuador showed that transfers reduced physical or sexual violence by 30 %. This mixed methods study aimed to understand the pathways that led to this reduction.MethodsWe conducted a mixed methods study that combined secondary analysis from a randomised controlled trial relating to the impact of a transfer programme on IPV with in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with male and female beneficiaries. A sequential analysis strategy was followed, whereby qualitative results guided the choice of variables for the quantitative analysis and qualitative insights were used to help interpret the quantitative findings.ResultsWe found qualitative and quantitative evidence that the intervention led to reductions in IPV through three pathways operating at the couple, household and individual level: i) reduced day-to-day conflict and stress in the couple; ii) improved household well-being and happiness; and iii) increased women’s decision making, self-confidence and freedom of movement. We found little evidence that any type of IPV increased as a result of the transfers.DiscussionWhile cash and in-kind transfers can be important programmatic tools for decreasing IPV, the positive effects observed in this study seem to depend on circumstances that may not exist in all settings or programmes, such as the inclusion of a training component. Moreover, the programme built upon rather than challenged traditional gender roles by targeting women as transfer beneficiaries and framing the intervention under the umbrella of food security and nutrition – domains traditionally ascribed to women.ConclusionsTransfers destined for food consumption combined with nutrition training reduced IPV among marginalised households in northern Ecuador. Evidence suggests that these reductions were realised by decreasing stress and conflict, improving household well-being, and enhancing women’s decision making, self-confidence and freedom of movement.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT02526147. Registered 24 August 2015.

Revisiting the “Cash versus Food” Debate: New Evidence for an Old Puzzle?

The longstanding “cash versus food” debate has received renewed attention in both research and practice. This paper reviews key issues shaping the debate and presents new evidence from randomized and quasi-experimental evaluations that deliberately compare cash and in-kind food transfers in ten developing counties. Findings show that relative effectiveness cannot be generalized: although some differences emerge in terms of food consumption and dietary diversity, average impacts tend to depend on context, specific objectives, their measurement, and program design. Costs for cash transfers and vouchers tend to be significantly lower relative to in-kind food. Yet the consistency and robustness of methods for efficiency analyses varies greatly.

Zjawisko samozaopatrzenia w gospodarstwach domowych według klasy miejscowości zamieszkania w aspekcie zrównoważonej konsumpcji

Due to the increasing stream of state-of-the-art goods and services, the recent years have witnessed a growing problem of sustainability of consumption and its impact on society and economy. In-kind food consumption from own farms or gardens, which bypasses the usual stages of preprocessing and market distribution, fi ts perfectly into the trend of sustainable consumption. The aim of the paper was to determine the level and structure of household in-kind food consumption across the classes of locality in Poland in 2005 and 2013 in terms of consumption sustainability. The main data source was the microdata of the Household Budget Survey, processed with the standard tools of descriptive statistics. The study found a diminishing importance of in-kind consumption in average Polish households together with its enduring signifi cance in rural households. This contrast seems to be the result of long-standing and still vibrant traditional patterns of consumption, as in-kind consumption has always been considered closely related to the rural lifestyle.