Improvised Explosive Research Articles

Fame seeking mass shooters in Eastern Europe

ABSTRACT This study presents a comparative case study analysis of three fame seeking mass shootings that arose in Eastern Europe. It draws on commonly assessed correlates, especially those stemming to Cumulative Strain Theory, to investigate whether there are differences or similarities inherent to the fame seeking phenomenon in this under-studied context. The inquiry reveals that the fame seeking phenomenon in Eastern Europe is not necessarily statistically rarer than in the U.S. in relation to the total universe of all mass shootings. Fame seekers in this context experienced similar forms of strains and adverse experiences as their American counterparts stemming to family issues, bullying, and isolation. Fame seekers also meticulously planned their attacks and two of the three cases featured offenders detonating homemade bombs. Ideationally, fame seeking appears to be heavily reliant on information that offenders obtain through the internet and mass media outlets about previous attacks, which entails that fame seeking has become a globalized phenomenon.

Exploration of the reactivities of homemade binary pyrotechnics.

Understanding the properties of explosives is the basis for investigating and analyzing explosion cases. To date, due to the strict legal control of standard explosives and initiators, homemade pyrotechnics composed of oxidizers and fuels have become popular explosive sources of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) threatening greatly social stability and personal safety. The reactivity of pyrotechnics strongly depends on their intrinsic characteristics and operating conditions, which determine the efficiencies of heat and mass transfer between the reaction zone and the unreacted zone. Herein, the tests of thermodynamics, pressurization characteristics, and combustion propagation behaviors are conducted to explore the effects of oxidizer species, particle size, and loading density on the reactivity of homemade binary aluminum-based pyrotechnics. The results show that the pyrotechnics with potassium chlorate (KClO3) have the strongest reactivity with the highest pressurization rate (dp/dt) and the shortest combustion duration. Compared with their counterparts based on aluminum microparticles(mAl), pyrotechnics consisting of Al nanoparticles (nAl) possess superior reactivity as expected, which results from the relatively short heat and mass transfer distances. The nAl-based pyrotechnics have a low reaction exothermic peak temperature, great heat release, great aluminothermic reaction completeness, and high produced peak pressure with several orders of magnitude higher pressurization rate. Increasing the loading density of the pyrotechnics over a certain value can change the dominant mode of heat transfer from convective to conduction, sharply decreasing the pressurization characteristics and combustion front propagation velocities (vp). The results of theoretical calculations using the NASA-CEA codes show that loading density can alter the reaction process of the pyrotechnics, leading to a decrease in the predicted pressure per unit mass for Al/KNO3 or Al/AP, and an increase for Al/KClO3. For nAl/potassium nitrate (KNO3), the density is between 1.0 and 1.25g cm-3, across which dp/dt decreases by one order of magnitude from 0.148 to 0.014MPa ms-1. In addition, vp decreases by three orders of magnitude from 0.040 to 0.078m s-1. Distinct pressurization behaviors of nAl/AP are observed at a density of 1.5g cm-3, while the variation in nAl/KClO3 reactivity fluctuates. These results are beneficial for the damage assessment of scenes caused by an explosion and for inversely calculating charge parameters.

Detection of Organic Explosive Residues from Outdoor Detonations using Confocal Raman Microscopy

The detection of post-blast residues in the aftermath of an explosion involving organic explosives with spectroscopic techniques is challenging as, typically, no microscopically visible unreacted particles remain after the explosion. However, some low-order explosions may leave visible particles behind, as well as the presence of significant amounts of unreacted material. In this study, four authentic open-air detonations using two simulated improvised explosive devices (IEDs) containing a mixture of military explosives (TNT and RDX), and two IEDs containing smokeless powder were conducted. The various materials they contained, including plastic, wood, and metal, were swabbed and extracted with acetone to create post-blast liquid extracts. The extracts were then dried and examined using confocal Raman microscopy, alongside a 50 ppm reference mixture of smokeless powder constituents, which was created to evaluate the effects of Raman scattering within the full smokeless powder mixture. Smokeless powder constituents, such as ethyl centralite, diphenylamine, nitroglycerin, and dibutyl phthalate, were successfully identified by comparison to the reference mixture on most substrates, with the exception of the paint stick (wood) substrate. TNT/RDX was also able to be identified in the extracts, with RDX crystals being observed in some dried extracts after solvent evaporation. However, the detection of TNT/RDX in the second detonation was unsuccessful, possibly due to an explosive chain reaction that was highly efficient. No trends were seen in substrate affinity for TNT/RDX. The challenges and benefits with the developed methodology for the detection of organic explosive residues from a variety of substrates are discussed in detail.

Remotely Controlled Armed Surveillance Rover

A remotely operated ground vehicle was designed and developed for use in counter terrorism and counter-insurgency operations by the Indian Army. The Rover can traverse difficult terrain, extreme slopes, inspect suspicious objects (e.g. improvised explosive devices) with a robotic weapon with a camera(even when hidden under a bridge), and give visual feedback to an operator away at a safe distance of certain range. It can be operated using mobile and can be self-triggered when a command is given. Militaries are now equipped with various types of rovers. Rover for assistance and spy purposes are developing. This project represents an application of Rover in the military. This rover is 4-wheeled developed on a rocker-bogie mechanism. According torecent Rover developments, rovers with rocker-bogie mechanismscan glide on rough surfaces, sand, and loose soil easily. Thedegree of freedom for the rover is 4 with the ability to rotate 360°.This rover is equipped with frequency hopping which makes it ananti-hack device. This project is useful for attacking the opponentsin the war without losing our army officers. So by using thisproject we can do war without losing human life on our side.

Numerical investigation on effects of blast loading on anti-fragment performance of hollow cylindrical UHMWPE cross-ply laminate

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fiber composites are widely applied for bullet and explosion proofing. This study numerically investigated the dynamic response of a hollow cylindrical UHMWPE cross-ply laminate subjected to combined blast and fragment loading produced by an improvised explosive device (IED). A strain-rate-dependent, anisotropic, elastoplastic constitutive model with progressive failure was adopted for the laminates via a user subroutine and comprehensively verified against the experimental results from the literature. Three sets of simulations of fragment-only loading, blast-only loading and the combined loading were performed on different configurations of IEDs and laminates. It was found that the effects of the blast loading were much weaker than those of the fragment loading and caused very small deformation of the laminate’s middle, including somewhat pre-tension along the circumferential direction but almost no fiber fracture. Both with and without blast loading, the dense penetrations of the multiple fragments dominated the response of laminates, including perforated holes that were interconnected with each other and global ply splitting. As a result, the blast effects barely affected the anti-fragment performance of the laminates.

Urologic Trauma Management for Military Providers.

Genitourinary (GU) trauma resulting from combat and the treatment of these injuries is an inadequately explored subject. While historically accounting for 2 to 5% of combat-related injuries, GU-related injuries escalated considerably during U.S. involvements in Iraq and Afghanistan due to improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Advanced body armor increased survivability while altering injury patterns, with a shift toward bladder and external genitalia injuries. Forward-deployed surgeons and military medics manage treatment, with Role 2 facilities addressing damage control resuscitation and surgery, including GU-specific procedures. The review aims to provide an overview of GU trauma and enhance medical readiness for battlefield scenarios. This review examined urologic trauma management in combat, searching PubMed, Cochrane Central, Scopus, and Web of Science databases with search terms "wounds" OR "injuries" OR "hemorrhage" AND "trauma" AND "penile" OR "genital" AND "combat." Records were then screened for inclusion of combat-related urologic trauma in conflicts after 2001 and which were English-based publications. No limits based on year of publication, study design, or additional patient-specific demographics were implemented in this review. Ultimately, 33 articles that met the inclusion criteria were included. Included texts were narrowed to focus on the management of renal injuries, ureteral trauma, bladder injuries, penile amputations, urethral injuries, testicular trauma, Central nervous system (CNS) injuries, and female GU injuries. In modern conflicts, treatment of GU trauma at the point of injury should be secondary to Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) care in addition to competing non-medical priorities. This review highlights the increasing severity of GU trauma due to explosive use, especially dismounted IEDs. Concealed morbidity and fertility issues underscore the importance of protection measures. Military medics play a crucial role in evaluating and managing GU injuries. Adherence to tactical guidelines and trained personnel is vital for effective management, and GU trauma's integration into broader polytrauma care is essential. Adequate preparation should address challenges for deploying health care providers, prioritizing lifesaving and quality-of-life care for casualties affected by GU injuries.

Understanding the explosion risk presented by ammonium nitrate and aluminium home-made explosives detonated as surface charges in hexahedral main charge containers

Ammonium nitrate and aluminium (AN–Al) has been used as a typical homemade explosive (HME) by non-state actors since the turn of the century. Despite the regulation applied to ammonium nitrate above 16% nitrogen content and an aluminium particle size below 200 µm, their use has been widespread in Afghanistan, Columbia, Iraq, Syria and Yemen. Containers used to utilise AN–Al as a man-portable improvised explosive device (IED) are typically hexahedral in shape, not the spherical or hemispherical geometries used to theorise risk mitigation. This is particularly important in post-blast investigation where explosives of a non-ideal nature are often used in non-spherical containers.Given the breadth of HME available to criminals, the explosion performance of forty hexahedral containers filled with AN–Al of unknown manufacture is examined. Performance of the AN–Al is determined through the surface detonation of these containers on alluvial soil, with apparent crater volume compared to theoretical calculations for spherical charges of TNT detonated in that same medium. A conversion factor for hexahedral main charges to spherical charges is then established to achieve more accurate predictions of the explosion risk using Kingery-Bulmash and Bowen curves. The paper provides worked examples for practical application and a methodology by which predictions of charge mass in other mediums such as asphalt can be determined.

Fragment dispersion characteristics of uncoupled charge structures with internal explosive loading

The demand for uncoupled charge structures has risen alongside advancements in warheads and protective design technologies in defense and public security sectors. Consequently, this work investigates the fragment dispersion characteristics of uncoupled charge structures and the impact of different structural parameters through numerical simulations. A modified equation derived from the Gurney formula is proposed using numerical simulation and the smoothed particle hydrodynamics method, tailored to the uncoupled charge concept and the foundational theory of the Gurney formula. To validate the fragment velocity prediction model for uncoupled charge structures, explosion experiments and other testing methods were utilized. By examining the theoretical underpinnings and the application of numerical simulation methods, this paper provides a robust foundation for the uncoupled charge structure, offering a crucial reference for designing protective measures against improvised explosive devices.

Highly Sensitive, Easy-to-Use, One-Step Detection of Peroxide-, Nitrate- and Chlorate-Based Explosives with Electron-Rich Ni Porphyrins.

Homemade explosives, such as peroxides, nitrates, and chlorates, are increasingly abused by terrorists, criminals, and amateur chemists. The starting materials are easily accessible and instructions on how to make the explosives are described on the Internet. Safety considerations raise the need to detect these substances quickly and in low concentrations using simple methods. Conventional methods for the detection of these substances require sophisticated, electrically operated, analytical equipment. The simpler chemical detection methods are multistep and require several chemicals. We have developed a simple, one-step method that works similarly to a pH test strip in terms of handling. The analytical reaction is based on an acid-catalyzed oxidation of an electron-rich porphyrin to an unusually stable radical cation and dication. The detection limit for the peroxide-based explosive triacetone triperoxide (TATP), which is very frequently used by terrorists, is 40 ng and thus low enough to detect the substance without direct contact via the gas phase. It is sufficient to bring the stick close to the substance to observe a color change from red to green. Nitrates and chlorates, such as ammonium nitrate, urea nitrate, or potassium chlorate, are detected by direct contact with a sensitivity of 85-350 ng. A color change from red to dark brown is observed. The test thus detects all homemade explosives and distinguishes between the extremely impact-, shock-, and friction-sensitive peroxides and the less sensitive nitrates and chlorates by color change of a simple test strip.

Survivability of IED components, suitcases, their contents and luggage containers in suitcase bombs

One of the most striking attacks on a commercial passenger airliner was the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 (PA103) on 21 December 1988. Shortly after departure, the Boeing 747 “Clipper Maid of the Seas” broke apart over the Scottish town of Lockerbie. All 259 passengers and crew were killed, along with 11 residents of Lockerbie. The bombing of flight PA103 is still subject to controversy. The origin of a crucial piece of evidence, a fragment of circuit board, is highly questioned. One of the reasons for this ongoing controversy is probably that circumstantial evidence, that led to the conviction of a Libyan, is not supported by other evidence. Almost nothing is published in the forensic literature regarding the survivability of components that make up an improvised explosive device (IED). To gain insight into the survivability of IED components, suitcases, their contents, and luggage containers, a series of controlled experiments were carried out in which suitcase bombs, positioned in different configurations in aluminium LD3 luggage containers, were detonated. From the results, it could be seen that the major part of the suitcases, their contents and the LD3 containers survived the explosion. Also, almost all components of the IED itself survived the explosion to a greater or lesser extent.

A high‐power electromagnetic source for disabling improvised explosive devices

AbstractUltra‐wideband (UWB) microwave sources driven by specialised pulsed power generators have experienced a considerable development in the last decade due to their wide domain of new applications such as defence or counter‐terrorism activity. The authors present the main findings of a research dedicated to the development of a pulsed power‐driven electromagnetic field source for disabling improvised explosive devices (IED). The pulsed power generator driving the source is a 13‐stage compact Marx producing voltage pulses reaching an amplitude of 0.5 MV, with a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of up to 100 Hz. The generator is coupled to a bipolar pulse forming line, providing bipolar pulses with a dV/dt of around 1.6 MV/ns. This pulsed power system feeds an array composed of 16 Koshelev‐type UWB antennas through an impedance matching transformer. The resulting electromagnetic source is capable to produce pulsed electric fields (PEFs) having a figure‐of‐merit (FOM) of 1 MV. First, practical experiments were carried out to study the effects of the PEFs on targets. The targets used in the present study are M2B type flashbulbs, known to have the same susceptibility as the US army M6 detonator. Different configurations of wires (shielded, twisted, etc) with different lengths were used in connecting items inside these targets. The tests were performed by placing the flashbulbs at different distances to determine the essential parameters (i.e., amplitude, duration, and frequency range) of the PEFs required to trigger them. An overview of the experimental campaign and the main findings are also presented followed by conclusions.

Effects of composition on the explosive properties of potassium chlorate and oils

Abstract Potassium chlorate has long been utilized as an excellent oxidizing agent in pyrotechnics and explosives. As mixtures of potassium chlorate and any type of combustible material can be explosive, there is a potential risk of misuse in homemade explosives. Unlike commercial explosives, homemade chlorate and oil mixtures do not have a constant composition, which limits their understanding. This study reports the effects of two types of oil (motor oil and cooking oil) and their ratios (ranging from 2.5% to 40.0% (w/w)) on the explosive properties of such mixtures. The impact sensitivity was highest at a motor oil ratio of 5%. The friction sensitivity increased with an increasing oil ratio, reaching a maximum at an oil ratio of around 22.5%, and was close to those of primary explosives. The motor oil mixtures exhibited higher sensitivity than the cooking oil mixtures at oil ratios of 25% or less. A 10% oil mixture, which was close to the ratio of oxygen balance equal to zero, detonated in weak confinement, such as a paper cylinder. The highest detonation velocities in a polypropylene tube were around 2300 and 2550 m/s at a 10% ratio of motor oil and cooking oil, respectively. The velocities of the metal case wall, measured by photonic Doppler velocimetry, reached about 1100 m/s near the end of acceleration. These results show that homemade chlorate and oil mixtures are capable of detonation and quite sensitive over a wide range of oil ratios, with sufficient power to cause damage in the vicinity.

Infrared to terahertz identification of chemical substances used for the production of IEDs

In our modern times, improvised explosive devices (IEDs) have become more sophisticated than ever, capable of causing destruction and loss of life. The creative use of homemade substances for IEDs manufactures has led to efforts in developing sensitive detection methods that can anticipate, identify and protect against improvised attacks. Laser-based spectroscopic techniques provide rapid and accurate detection of chemicals in improvised explosives, but no single method can detect all components of all explosives. In this study, two spectroscopic methods are used for the sensitive identification of 8 explosive chemical substances in the form of powders and vapors. Absorption spectra of benzene, toluene, acetone and ethylene glycol were examined with CO2 laser photoacoustic spectroscopy. The photoacoustic signals of the samples were recorded in the CO2 laser emission range from 9.2 to 10.8 µm and a different spectral behavior was observed for each analyzed substance. Time-domain spectroscopy with THz radiation was used to analyze ammonium nitrate, potassium chlorate, dinitrobenzene, hexamethylenetetramine transmission spectra in the 0.1–3 THz range, and it was observed that they have characteristic THz fingerprint spectra. CO2 laser photoacoustic spectroscopy and THz time domain spectroscopy have met the criterion of proven effectiveness in identifying explosive components. The combination of these spectroscopic methods is innovative, giving a promising new approach for detection of a large number of IED components.

Explosive field trial for repetitive testing of VBIEDs to probabilistically measure blast and fragmentation hazards

This paper describes results from an explosive field trial of the detonation of Vehicle-Borne Improvised Explosive Devices (VBIEDs). The purpose of the trials is to replicate tests with identical car type and explosive mass to help probabilistically characterise the uncertainty and variability of blast pressures and fragment hazards. These variabilities may be considerable, and it is important to recognise that the world is not deterministic. The paper describes the spatial variability (directionality) of incident pressure, impulse and time of positive phase duration, and compares these to results from a bare charge, and the hemispherical surface burst Kingery and Bulmash polynomials often used for predicting blast loads from IEDs, such as ConWep. This also allows directional airblast factors to be quantified. The spatial distribution of over 26,000 fragments on the ground is also presented over the 250 m × 300 m test arena. The fragment densities and velocities obtained from the witness panels are also described, and preliminary fatality risks were estimated. These data may help develop or validate airblast and fragment hazard numerical or other models. Ultimately, probabilistic approaches will provide decision support for the determination of safety distance and risk reduction measures to prevent fatality and injury from blast pressure and fragmentation hazards.

MINING OF UKRAINE - A HUGE THREAT TO THE CIVIL POPULATION AND A SERIOUS CHALLENGE FOR SAPER DEPARTMENT

The article is an attempt to present the threats to the security of the civilian population resulting from the mining of the territory of Ukraine during military operations related to the attack on this country by the troops of the Russian Federation (FR). Mining in Ukraine is caused both by: the massive use of mine-barrage measures used to build classic minefields (both anti-tank and anti-personnel minefields), the widespread use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in combat operations, various types of unexploded ordnance and other explosive and dangerous items. The author of the article describes the means of combat used during the fighting on the territory of Ukraine, the use of which contributes to the contamination of the area and causes a deadly threat to the civilian population. It also presents the tasks carried out by the state services of Ukraine in order to clear the territory of this country in order to neutralize the threats generated by explosive and dangerous items of military origin as soon as possible and to enable the civilian population to return to a normal, safe life. In the final part of the article, the author presents the Polish implementation system clearing the territory of the country from explosive and dangerous objects.

Periarticular blast wounds without fracture a prospective case series

BackgroundDuring the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq most injuries to service members involved the musculoskeletal system. These wounds often occurred around joints, and in some cases result in traumatic arthrotomy—a diagnosis that is not always clear, especially when there is no concomitant articular fracture. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the diagnosis and treatment of peri-articular blast injuries without fracture.MethodsThe study cohort included 12 consecutive patients (12 involved extremities) who sustained peri-articular blast wounds of the extremities without fractures. The diagnosis of penetrating articular injury was based on clinical examination, radiographic findings, or aspiration. A peri-articular wound was defined as any wound, or radio-opaque blast fragment, within 5 cm of a joint. The New Injury Severity Score (NISS) was calculated for each patient. Four patients had upper, and 8 patients had lower extremity injuries. Nine of 12 patients had joint capsular penetration and underwent joint irrigation and debridement.ResultsTwo patients had retained intra-articular metal fragments. One patient had soft tissue blast wounds within 5 cm of a joint but did not have joint capsule penetration. There were no significant differences (p = 0.23) between the distribution of wounds to upper versus lower extremities. However, there were a significantly greater number of blast injuries attributed to Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) than from other blast mechanisms (p = 0.01).ConclusionExtremity blast injuries in the vicinity of joints involving only soft tissues present a unique challenge in surgical management. A high index of suspicion should be maintained for joint capsular penetration so that intra-articular injuries may be appropriately treated.

Epidemiological Profile of War Wounded in the Emergency Reception Department of the Sominé Dolo Hospital in Mopti

The security crisis experienced by our country in 2012 resulted in numerous injuries and deaths linked to terrorist attacks and this required a reorganization of the care of the injured. The objective of this work was to determine the frequency of war wounded at the Sominé Dolo hospital in Mopti (Mali). We realized a single-center descriptive cross-sectional study relating to the files of patients suffering from war injuries and admitted to the emergency reception department of the Sominé Dolo hospital in Mopti (Mali) during the period between January 1, 2020 and October 31, 2022. This hospital represents the largest reference structure in central Mali with per year. During the study period, 5,404 wounded people of all kinds were admitted to the emergency reception service out of a total of 65,740 patients, i.e. a frequency of 8.22%, and 1,540 war wounded were admitted, i.e. a frequency of 2. 34%. The age of war-wounded patients ranged from 6 months to 80 years with an average age of 30.61 years. The patients were divided into 1448 men (94%) and 92 women (6%), giving a sex ratio of 15.74. Patients transported by ambulance to hospital accounted for 62.01%, by plane (18.31%), civil protection (3.38%), other means of transport (16.3%). Half of the injured were received within 6 hours of their trauma. Those injured by firearms represented 79%, and those injured by improvised explosive devices (15%). The mortality rate was 0.39% in the emergency room.

Forensic analytical aspects of homemade explosives containing grocery powders and hydrogen peroxide

Homemade explosives become a significant challenge for forensic scientists and investigators. In addition to well-known materials such as acetone peroxide trimer, black powder, or lead azides, perpetrators often produce more exotic and less recognized Homemade Explosives (HMEs). Mixtures of hydrogen peroxide with liquid fuels are widely acknowledged as powerful explosives. Interestingly, similar explosive properties are found in mixtures of numerous solid materials with H2O2. Notably, powdered groceries, such as coffee, tea, grounded spices, and flour, are particularly interesting to pyrotechnics enthusiasts due to their easy production using accessible precursors, which do not attract the attention of security agencies. H2O2-based HMEs may become a dangerous component of improvised explosive devices for terrorists and ordinary offenders. For the four most powerful mixtures—HMEs based on coffee, tea, paprika, and turmeric—molecular markers useful for identification using the GC–MS technique have been proposed. Furthermore, the observed time-dependent changes in mixtures of H2O2 with these food products were studied and evaluated as a potential method for assessing the age of the evidence and reconstructing timelines of crimes. The paper also discusses the usefulness of FT-IR spectroscopy for identifying H2O2-based HMEs.

Enhancing Cooperation to Counter Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Kenya

The threat posed by Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Kenya necessitates robust and coordinated countermeasures. This study investigates collaborative approaches to countering IEDs, focusing on opportunities for enhanced cooperation among stakeholders. The primary objective is to assess the impact of multi-agency collaboration on improving the effectiveness of IED countermeasures and to provide policy recommendations for strengthening these efforts. The study is grounded in the theory of collaborative governance, which emphasizes the importance of interconnectedness and cooperative strategies among various agencies to address complex security challenges. Data were collected from a target population comprising security professionals, government officials, and international partners through a mixed-methods approach. This included a survey with 95 respondents and semi-structured interviews with 15 key informants. Findings from the study indicate a high level of engagement in collaborative efforts to counter IEDs. Survey results reveal that 69.8% of respondents agree or strongly agree that multi-agency collaboration is crucial for addressing IED threats, with a mean rating of 3.59. Similarly, 66.8% acknowledge the significant contributions of international partnerships, with a mean rating of 3.73. Despite these positive perceptions, challenges such as poor coordination and transparency issues in international collaborations were frequently cited. Interviews corroborated these findings, highlighting the need for improved communication channels and trust-building measures. Data analysis involved both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize the level of agreement on various aspects of collaboration, while qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and insights. Key recommendations include the establishment of structured frameworks for information sharing, enhancing leadership capacities, and prioritizing transparency in international partnerships. Continuous engagement and knowledge-sharing initiatives are also vital for fostering innovation and effectively refining strategies to counter IED threats. In conclusion, this study underscores the critical importance of enhanced cooperation among stakeholders in mitigating the impact of IEDs in Kenya. By addressing identified challenges and leveraging collaborative opportunities, policymakers and practitioners can develop more effective strategies to improve security outcomes and protect public safety.

Intelligent, Automated, Rapid, and Safe Landmine, Improvised Explosive Device and Unexploded Ordnance Detection Using Maggy

Intelligent, Automated, Rapid, and Safe Landmine, Improvised Explosive Device and Unexploded Ordnance Detection Using Maggy