Improved Farming Practices Research Articles

Factors Influencing the Use and Choice of Formal Agriculture Credit Sources among Rice Farmers in Chitwan District, Nepal

Agriculture credit is important to sustain and further improve farming practices among rice farmers in developing countries like Nepal. Agriculture credit from formal sources safeguard farmers from fraud and misconduct which are common in informal sources. An investigation was carried out in Chitwan district of Nepal during January, 2023 to identify the factors influencing the use of formal agriculture credit among rice farmers. Further, factors influencing choice of sources among formal agriculture credit users was also assessed. Using random sampling, 59 formal agriculture credit users and 46 informal agriculture credit users were used for the study. Descriptive statistics and logit model were used to interpret the findings. Results revealed that use of formal agriculture credit increases with availability of off-farm income source and membership to agricultural cooperatives among farm household. Efforts should be made to promote participation in agricultural cooperatives to increase usage of formal agriculture credit among farm household. Similarly, choice of cooperatives over bank and microfinance increases with less formal education of the household head and non-availability of off-farm income source among farm household. Likely, choice of bank increases with no participation in agricultural cooperatives and choice of microfinance increases with higher contact with extension workers. Agriculture cooperatives should be further strengthened to provide timely and adequate credit, as it seems to support formal credit users characterized by lower formal education and no off-farm income source.

Harnessing Virtual Insights: A Computational Study on the Molecular Characterization of a Drought‐Inducible RNA‐Binding Protein for Enhancing Drought Tolerance in Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.)

AbstractAbiotic stresses, particularly drought and salinity, significantly impact agricultural crop yields, with mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) being no exception. This annual green legume, vital to agricultural systems in Asia, is generally resilient to limited water supply; however, severe drought conditions at critical growth stages can drastically diminish both its quality and yield. Drought stress negatively affects various morpho‐physicochemical properties, impeding plant growth and highlighting the need for sustainable approaches to enhance mung bean's drought tolerance through improved farming practices. In this study, we focused on identifying and understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying drought tolerance in mung beans. We retrieved the target gene sequence from the NCBI database, but found no direct sequence similarity, which led to the use of homology modeling. The structure of a known protein (PDB ID: 5T9P) was identified as the most suitable template. Motif prediction using the Motif Search tool highlighted specific motifs relevant to drought stress responses. To investigate potential drought‐tolerance mechanisms, we screened ABA agonists using Density Functional Theory (DFT) analysis. Molecular docking and MD simulations revealed the interactions between these ligands and the modeled protein, shedding light on how they might influence drought tolerance. We performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to assess the stability and conformational dynamics of the modeled protein across different time scales. Our findings underscore the potential of ABA agonists to modulate physiological responses and enhance drought resistance. This research offers valuable insights into the conformational dynamics of drought‐related proteins in mung beans, elucidating the molecular underpinnings of drought response mechanisms. By advancing our understanding of these processes, our findings provide novel strategies for improving breeding approaches aimed at enhancing crop resilience against water scarcity and other abiotic stresses. This work promises to mitigate the detrimental effects of drought on mung bean yields and supports sustainable agricultural practices, thereby contributing to global food security.

Temporal Dynamics of Plasma Catecholamines, Metabolic and Immune Markers, and the Corticosterone:DHEA Ratio in Farmed Crocodiles before and after an Acute Stressor.

Commercial crocodilian farms face significant economic and livestock losses attributed to stress, which may be linked to their adopted husbandry practices. The development of appropriate and modernized husbandry guidelines, particularly those focused on stress mitigation, is impeded by the limited understanding of the crocodilian stress response. Fifteen grower Nile crocodiles were subjected to simulated acute transport stress, with blood samples collected at various intervals post-stress. Plasma levels of corticosterone (CORT), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), adrenaline, and noradrenaline were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Glucose and lactate were measured using portable meters and the heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (HLR) was determined via differential leucocyte counts. Significant differences were elicited after the stressor, with acute fluctuations observed in the fast-acting catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) when compared to the baseline. Downstream effects of these catecholamines and CORT appear to be associated with a persistent increase in plasma glucose and HLR. Lactate also showed acute fluctuations over time but returned to the baseline by the final measurement. DHEA, which is used in a ratio with CORT, showed fluctuations over time with an inverted release pattern to the catecholamines. The study highlights the temporal dynamics of physiological markers under acute stress, contributing to our understanding of crocodilian stress and potentially informing improved farming practices for conservation and sustainable management.

Perilaku Pencarian Informasi Petani dalam Budidaya Gambir di Jorong Tanjuang Bungo Nagari Koto Lamo Kecamatan Kapur IX Kabupaten Lima Puluh Kota

This study aims to describe the information seeking behavior of farmers in gambier cultivation in Jorong Tanjuang Bungo. The method used is a qualitative method using interviews to collect data. The interviews involved ten farmers in Jorong Tanjung Bungo. Data were collected through four stages, namely passive attention, passive search, active search, and continuous search. Results show that in the passive attention stage, farmers rely on TV and Radio if the signal is stable and social interaction. The passive search stage is characterized by receiving unexpected information through communication. In the active search stage, farmers use external resources such as actively engaging in various communities. The continuous search stage shows farmers' efforts to expand their knowledge and improve farming practices. Therefore, there are obstacles faced by farmers in gambier cultivation in the process of searching for information which includes the lack of media used to search for information so that the information searched shows little information because of one source only.

Sustainable livestock farming practices in Punjab, Pakistan: Insights from demographic analysis and disease prevalence

This study investigates the socio-economic landscape and disease prevalence among livestock farmers in Punjab, Pakistan, focusing on Muzaffargarh and Rahim Yar Khan districts. A sample of 400 farmers was randomly selected using a multistage sampling technique. The demographic analysis reveals a predominantly middle-aged and older farming population, with small to medium landholdings. Specifically, 43.3% of farmers were categorized as old (>50 years), while 65.0% were small-scale landholders (less than 12.5 acres). Regarding disease recognition, foot and mouth disease and hemorrhagic septicemia emerged as the most recognized diseases, with mean scores of 3.30 and 3.22 respectively, on a scale of 1 to 5. Additionally, ticks were identified as the primary external parasite affecting livestock, with a mean score of 3.19. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions to address disease management and improve farming practices in the region. Strengthening veterinary services, promoting disease prevention measures, and enhancing access to quality fodder are crucial steps toward ensuring sustainable livestock farming in Punjab, Pakistan.

Unveiling the Nexus: How Extension Delivery Methods Drive the Adoption of Improved Agronomic Practices among Cocoa Farmers in the Bono Region

The aim of this research is to investigate how different methods of delivering agricultural extension services influences the adoption of improved farming practices by cocoa farmers in the Bono Region. The study used data from 401 cocoa farmers selected through the multi-stage sampling technique. Generally, extension agents use farm visits and group meetings to facilitate the training of farmers on improved agronomic practices. Due to that, farmers perceived the use of farm visits and group meetings to be effective. We also found that farmers had a high level of knowledge on agronomic practices. The Tobit regression model was used to determine the effect of extension delivery methods on adoption of improved practices. The significant relationship found in this study between farm visits, group meetings, and the adoption of improved agronomic practices underscores the importance of targeted extension strategies that incorporate personalised interactions and group-based learning approaches to effectively promote agricultural innovation and sustainable farming practices. We recommend that the extension officers should frequently pay visits to the farmers and organise group meetings to improve the adoption of improved agronomic practices.

Agroforestry: An Inspirational Case of Diversified Farmers Income and Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in the Mid-hills of Central Nepal

Agroforestry (AF) plays an important role in food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and environmental resources preservation and restoration. This study was carried out in Raksirang rural municipality of Makwanpur district, Nepal aiming at assessing existing AF practices, their contribution to climate change adaptation, household income and livelihood improvement of the indigenous Chepang Community. Mixed methodological approaches including key informant interviews, group discussions, household surveys were employed for data collection. The data were analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics (percentage, mean, frequency distribution, graphics) and F-test. Local communities have been found practicing various AF systems including Agri-silviculture, Silvo-pasture, Horti-silviculture, Apiculture and Silvo-fishery. Adoption of AF practices contributed 72.82% of total Household’s income, in which income from livestock was highest (32.88%). The strategies followed by the local communities in response to climate change included planting of trees and grasses, improved farming practices by growing commercial fruits; replacing farm activities with non-farm activities; use of farm yard manure, chemical fertilizer, pesticides and planting crop earlier than actual sowing time. Trees and grass plantation should be done periodically and promotion of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in their AF practices should be encouraged. It will finally contribute in the improvement of local adaptation.

Analyzing Spatial Dependence of Rice Production in Northeast Thailand for Sustainable Agriculture: An Optimal Copula Function Approach

Rice is not only central to Thailand’s economy and dietary consumption but also plays a significant role in global food security. Northeast Thailand, in particular, is a principal region for rice cultivation. However, with the mounting concerns of climate change, it becomes paramount to understand the interplay between regional weather patterns and rice yields, aiming to develop effective adaptive agricultural strategies. The current study aimed to fill the research gap by investigating an optimal copula for the spatial dependence of rice production and related meteorological variables in this area. The objective of this study is to understand how rice production in different areas relates to each other in order to improve farming practices and address challenges such as suitable weather. To achieve this goal, we apply three families of copulas—elliptical, Archimedean, and extreme—to analyze crop and meteorological variables across the watershed in the northeastern region of Thailand. With a data foundation extending from 1981 to 2021 from the Regional Office of Agricultural Economics Sector 4, Thailand, this study offers a comprehensive analysis of the spatial dynamics driving rice production across twenty provinces in Northeast Thailand. Using a piecewise linear model, we dissected rice yield trends, revealing distinct slopes in production and yield across various periods. The analysis leaned on elliptical, Archimedean, and extreme copula families, using the maximum likelihood estimation to discern marginal distribution residuals. Through rigorous bootstrap goodness-of-fit tests and cross-validation, the most appropriate copula for each province was identified. Key findings demonstrate pronounced spatial interdependencies in rice yields, with the Frank copula prominently capturing the product relationship between provinces such as Maha Sarakham and Roi-Et. Conversely, the Clayton copula better characterized regions such as Srisaket and Ubon Ratchathani. Moreover, the results underscore the considerable influence of meteorological factors, notably rainfall and temperature, on rice production, especially in regions like Ubon Ratchathani. In distilling these multifaceted relationships, the study charts a pathway for crafting sustainable, localized agricultural strategies. As the world grapples with climate change’s ramifications, the insights from this research stand crucial, offering direction for fostering resilience, adaptation, and optimizing rice productivity across Thailand’s diverse agrarian landscapes.

The impact of adoption of milk safety practices on food and nutrition security: Evidence from smallholder dairy farmers in Ethiopia

Despite the progress observed over the past decades, food and nutritional insecurity remain the prominent challenges in Ethiopia. In this respect, improved farming practices and productivity-enhancing agricultural technologies have been identified as pathways out of these problems; these technologies are the priority agenda of the government policy in Ethiopia. Nonetheless, the impact of the adoption of milk safety practices on dairy farmers’ food and nutrition security has not yet been addressed, especially at the smallholder farmers’ level. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the adoption of milk safety practices on dairy farmers’ food and nutrition security in Ethiopia, using primary data collected from 410 dairy farmers. Generalized propensity score matching was used to evaluate the heterogeneous impact of the adoption of milk safety practices on the household food and nutrition security indicators (per capita food consumption expenditure and food consumption score). The findings reveal that the adoption of milk safety practices had a moderate impact on food consumption expenditure but had no significant impact on food consumption score. An ordered probit endogenous switching regression was also used to account for unobserved bias and check the robustness of the generalized propensity score estimates. Accordingly, the results are similar to the generalized propensity score estimates, and unobserved bias was not a problem. In general, the impact of adoption of milk safety practices on food and nutrition security of smallholder dairy farmers is moderate in Ethiopia. This might be because of the high compliance costs with the adoption of milk safety practices and the lack of quality-based pricing systems. Hence, creating an enabling environment, which in turn, encourages the adoption of milk safety practices would help improve positive effects of the adoption of milk safety practices on food and nutritional security.

Adaptation constraints and prospects for future research priorities in lowland rice-based farming systems: learning experiences from Northwest Cambodia

Sustainable agricultural development not only addresses global food insecurity but may also alleviate poverty by enriching the lives of millions of smallholder farmers. Improving the sustainability and profitability of agriculture where smallholders are dominant creates profound impacts because small landholding farmers produce approximately 70–80% of the global food. The need for a thorough understanding of the factors affecting farmers’ adoption of agricultural technologies and practices has been identified from extant literature as an important research gap. Responding to the research gap and need, this study examined the challenges that prevent farm households from adopting improved farming practices and/or technologies in Banteay Meanchey and Battambang provinces in Northwest Cambodia. A total of 524 rice producing farm household representatives were randomly selected from a household database maintained by the local government authorities. A mixed methods approach was used in the study including semi-structured interviews followed by in-depth interviews, field observations, and literature review. Farmers were found to be confronted with a range of challenges and concerns, including soil degradation, weeds, diseases, insect pests, high production costs, flooding, droughts, changing rainfall pattern, and unreliable rainfall distribution. The research findings demonstrate that improved crop production practices (e.g., adopting mechanised direct seeding methods of crop establishment, maintaining and improving soil health through crop residue retention, growing cover crops, etc.) and better resource use efficiency (e.g., reducing seeding rates to less than 100 kg/ha, being more strategic in the use of integrated nutrient, weed, and pest management strategies, etc.) can be a starting point for sustainable intensification of rice production. This transition towards intensifying paddy production sustainably may become even more effective through a clear understanding of local contexts, farm household characteristics, available resources, and the farm management practices and constraints. We observed that farmers and their associations have yet to be fully recognised as partners and actors in Cambodia. Instead, they tend to be viewed as beneficiaries and recipients of improved practices and technologies. We, therefore, propose that farmers and their associations be acknowledged and included in a process of co-creation of knowledge-practices. Such partnerships will enable the inclusion of factors (e.g., production costs, production risks, complexity and practicability of implementations, product market and prices, etc.) shown to influence farmers’ adoption of innovative farming practices and technologies. The original contribution of this article is a real-world account of the constraints and limitations experienced by smallholder rice farmers in Cambodia, which are connected to future research and development priorities in the region.

On land, life, and labour: Abundance and scarcity in Locke, Smith, and Ricardo

On land, life, and labour: Abundance and scarcity in Locke, Smith, and Ricardo

Assessment of Crop Production Dynamics in Punjab

The structural transformation brings changes to new technology in the form of high-yielding seeds, fertilizers and pesticides and the adoption of modern and improved farm practices since mid-1960s. However, after the mid-1980s, the growth rate of the agricultural economy started decelerating. Results revealed that during overall period, the growth rate in area, production and yield was negative for field crops except for rice and wheat. For fruits and vegetables, the growth rate in area, production and yield were positive for almost all the periods, the area effect was higher for food grains and the yield effect was higher in fruits. The state was found to be less diversified.

Farmers’ knowledge and adoption of improved mandarin orchard management practices in Syangja district, Nepal

Mandarin is one of the major fruit crops in the mid-hills of Nepal. Since improved farming practices appear to offer a significant chance to boost production and revenue, a study was conducted in Syangja, Nepal with the objective to assess farmers’ knowledge and adoption of improved mandarin orchard management practices and identify factors affecting their adoption. Primary data were collected by the use of pretested semi-structured questionnaire from randomly selected 97 respondents within the study area. Data were entered and analyzed using MS Excel, SPSS, and STATA, and the inferences were retrieved using the binary logistic regression model. Findings revealed that the respondents were familiar with most of the improved orchard management practices, however, there was variation in the scale of adoption of these practices. The majority (>90%) were found to practice pruning, FYM application, and weed control; however, there were relatively fewer adopters when it came to the use of Bordeaux paste (75.25%), chemical fertilizers (17.52%), mulching (57.74%), irrigation (44.33%), and soil testing and amendment (39.18%). The study showed that the adoption of Bordeaux paste and soil amendment differ significantly by gender (p=0.069 and p=0.041, respectively). Training has a positive impact on the use of Bordeaux paste (p=0.026), chemical fertilizers (p=0.075), and soil amendment practices (p=0.003). The usage of chemical fertilizers is more prevalent among people with formal education (p=0.075). Knowledge level also positively influences the adoption of mulching (p=0.014) and soil amendment practices (p=0.000). The number of trees is positively and significantly associated (p=0.008) with irrigation practice. It is recommended that expanding access to irrigation facilities and encouraging the use of the recommended amount of fertilizers, mulch, and Bordeaux paste must be prioritized in the study area.

Carbon sequestration potential of sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate climate change in Indian agriculture: A meta-analysis

India's agricultural sector ensures food and livelihood security for millions of rural households. However, the adverse effects of climate change pose a severe threat to agricultural sustainability. Compared to conventional practices, sustainable farming offers significant environmental benefits and helps to mitigate climate change impacts. In this article, we examined the effects of integrated nutrient management, organic amendment, no-tillage, crop rotation, residue retention, intercropping, and biochar on C sequestration and the influencing factors and associated economic benefits. A total of 2362 pair-wise observations from 295 studies were included in the meta-analysis framework. The result shows that biochar was the most effective practice for enhancing C sequestration (+41.28 %). Maize-wheat and legume-based cropping systems, medium fine-textured soils, humid-subtropical climate, rainfall, irrigation, and time period were the significant factors that affect carbon sequestration. In addition, our study demonstrated that C sequestration is a dynamic process, and only a limited amount of sequestration is possible from a piece of land. Further, we found that all the improved farming practices that enhance C sequestration were technically feasible and economically profitable. Thus, soil C sequestration through improved crop management practices represents a win-win strategy to combat climate change and conserve natural resources. Therefore, efforts should be directed towards outscaling of sustainable agricultural practices to enhance resilience and adaptation to climate change.

Pesticide-Free Robotic Control of Aphids as Crop Pests

Because our civilization has relied on pesticides to fight weeds, insects, and diseases since antiquity, the use of these chemicals has become natural and exclusive. Unfortunately, the use of pesticides has progressively had alarming effects on water quality, biodiversity, and human health. This paper proposes to improve farming practices by replacing pesticides with a laser-based robotic approach. This study focused on the neutralization of aphids, as they are among the most harmful pests for crops and complex to control. With the help of deep learning, we developed a mobile robot that spans crop rows, locates aphids, and neutralizes them with laser beams. We have built a prototype with the sole purpose of validating the localization-neutralization loop on a single seedling row. The experiments performed in our laboratory demonstrate the feasibility of detecting different lines of aphids (50% detected at 3 cm/s) and of neutralizing them (90% mortality) without impacting the growth of their host plants. The results are encouraging since aphids are one of the most challenging crop pests to eradicate. However, enhancements in detection and mainly in targeting are necessary to be useful in a real farming context. Moreover, robustness regarding field conditions should be evaluated.

Assessment of climate change risks and adaptation of improved farming practices in dekhar haor of sunamganj district

Flash flood is the most commonly occurring water related disaster in the haor area of Bangladesh. It’s occurs during the pre-monsoon season (March-April-May). The haor area is very susceptible to climatic risk and prone to early flash flood in consecutive year. In response, the government of Bangladesh has initiated a number of institutional interventions through development plans to better support sustainable adaptation. A study was carried out to assess the climate change risks and adaptation of indigenous farming practices of dekhar haor in Sunamganj district. Data were collected through direct interview from randomly selected 96 farmers, 4 Focus Group Discussion and 10 Key Informant Interviews during September 2019 to January 2020. It was found that the most potential climatic hazards of the study area were flash flood, thunderstorm, hailstorm and drought. The data related to agricultural adaptation strategies to climate change indicated that the majority (54.2%) farmers had medium adaptation and 45.8% low adaptation and no farmers were found with high adaptation. Climatic risks at different agricultural sectors such as crop protection, community protection, fisheries, livestock and risk of drought were assessed through comparative analysis of climatic hazards, vulnerability to climate change and adaptation capacity. Bangladesh J. Agri. 2022, 47(1): 39-65

Examining the Relationship Between the use of Mobile Phones and Extension Methods in Adoption of Groundnut Farming Practices in Northwestern Nigeria

Adoption of recommended farm practices has been acknowledged to attain food security on groundnut production in Nigeria. Extension agents and other technology developers are now often using various channels of communication, as a means of reaching farmers with improved farm practices to ensure compliance. The aim of the paper is to examine the relationship between the use of mobile phones, individual and group extension methods, technology transfer mechanism in the adoption of improved groundnut farming practices, employing cross-sectional survey in four North-western states of Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted for interviewing three hundred and thirty-nine farmers. Descriptive and correlation analysis were used to analyze the data. The findings shows that farmers’ had moderate usage levels of mobile phones and individual extension methods, and a high level on group extension methods. Mobile phone, individual and group extension methods had significant relationship with adoption at one percent. While, challenges to the use of mobile phones, individual and group extension methods identified to include; low farmers’ literacy, unstable power supply, poor network, low patronage of extension workers, and also knowledge is restricted to members of the group. It was concluded that the use of mobile phone, individual and group extension methods need to be sustained and improved via government and other stakeholders’ provision of extension agents’, training on utilization of extension methods and mobile phones application for effective technology transfer. Development of farmers’ knowledge on appropriate utilization of mobile phone gadgets will assist them to become receptive and embrace the practices promoted.

Anaemia in Lambs Caused by Mycoplasma ovis: Global and Australian Perspectives.

Simple SummaryMycoplasma ovis (formerly Eperythrozoon ovis) inhabits red blood cells and may cause their destruction, leading to anaemia, jaundice and death mainly in lambs, and condemnation of jaundiced carcases at abattoirs. Mycoplasmosis is spread during high-risk procedures that expose or share blood, especially when blood sucking flies and other insects are present on wounds that transfer infection. High-risk procedures include vaccination (re-use of needles), ear-tagging (ineffective disinfection), surgical castration and mulesing (in Australia), and potentially crutching and shearing, with outbreaks usually occurring up to 6 weeks later. Affected animals are weak, lagging in the ‘tail of the mob’ and collapsing when mustered. The investigation of other causes of anaemia and jaundice is required, particularly haemonchosis (Barbers pole worms) and malnutrition. The diagnosis involves the demonstration of M. ovis in blood smears and/or by PCR, although the absence of the parasite in smears from affected animals requires the examination of in-contact healthy animals. Treatment with antibiotics is ineffective. For its control, it is required that risky procedures are avoided during high insect activity and the yarding of stock within the next 6 weeks is minimised. Recent anecdotal observations suggest that improved farm practices, including fly control and pain/antiseptic wound dressing may potentially decrease M. ovis risk on some farms in some areas of Australia.Mycoplasma ovis (formerly Eperythrozoon ovis) is a haemotropic parasitic bacterium found within erythrocytes and distributed widely in global sheep and goat production regions. M. ovis is transmitted by biting flies and by contaminated instruments, causing morbidity and mortalities from anaemia, usually within 6 weeks following blood-exposure procedures, particularly vaccination, castration, ear tagging, mulesing, and occasionally crutching and shearing. Affected animals develop haemolytic anaemia and may have jaundice, causing abattoir condemnations. The typical history, clinical and pathological findings, display of M. ovis in blood smears and/or by PCR is diagnostic, although immune responses deplete M. ovis from smears; hence, in-contact healthy animals should be examined. Differential diagnoses include haemonchosis, fasciolosis, malnutrition (copper or vitamin B12 deficiency), and plant toxicities. M. ovis parasitaemia may persist, with recrudescence following stressful events, although most older sheep remain immune. Human infections have been reported. Inadequate socioeconomic data present difficulties in assessing the impact of M. ovis on production and as antimicrobial therapy is ineffective, its control requires management practices that minimize the impact of invasive procedures in periods when risks of M. ovis transmission are more likely. Although considered an emerging pathogen, recent improvements in welfare attitudes and husbandry practices on Australian sheep farms may potentially limit the transmission of M. ovis.

Improved Farming Practices for the Cultivation of Spice, Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) in India

Clove is a very valuable spice used throughout the world with various medicinal and culinary properties. It cannot be cultivated in all climates and soils. In tropical countries it prefers to grow in red soil in higher altitudes with colder climate. In India, Western Ghats provides a suitable niche for the growth of clove in terms of climate and soil. The clove of commerce is the air-dried unopened flower bud obtained from evergreen medium sized tree. The tree grows to a height of 10-12 metres and start flowering in about four years. Eugenol is the main essential oil extracted from clove buds, stalks and leaves. It continues to produce flower buds for hundred or more years.

Intensification and no till system are efficient nitrogen allocators in rice crops

Nitrogen is one of the yield-limiting nutrients for the growth of rice plants. The study emphasizes on utilization of nitrogen by the four varieties of rice plants (viz. var. MTU 1010, var. IET 4786, var. IET 17430, and var. IET 9947) under system of rice intensification (SRI), zero tillage (ZTL), and conventional (CVN) method of cultivation in India. Results showed that plants under SRI and ZTL cultivation have significantly higher capacity (55% and 39%, respectively) of nitrogen uptake (kg ha−1) at maturity than CVN cultivation. The yield ranged from 9.15 ± 2.33 to 13.53 ± 1.94 t ha−1, and 3.26 ± 0.93 to 5.05 ± 1.03 t ha−1 in the SRI and ZTL, respectively which was higher as compared to CVN that was 2.84 ± 0.72 to 5.02 ± 0.32 t ha−1. Results also showed that plants under SRI and ZTL cultivation have higher values for nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) indices than CVN plants (p < .05). The agronomical efficiencies (AE) were 111.74 ± 31.27, 37.92 ± 6.57 and 38.13 ± 11.17 for SRI, CVN and ZTL respectively. The physiological efficiencies (PE) were 141.39 ± 4.50, 220.31 ± 10.32, 207.59 ± 11.07 for SRI, CVN, and ZTL, respectively. In case of nitrogen harvest index (NHI), the values were 0.54 ± 0.03, 0.26 ± 0.03, 0.15 ± 0.04 for SRI, CVN, and ZTL, respectively. Thus, improved farming practices such as SRI or ZTL need to be introduced over the CVN farming technique to increase rice yields, and ensure efficient use of applied nitrogen.