Improvements In Agricultural Technology Research Articles

Enhancing Aboveground Biomass Prediction through Integration of the SCDR Paradigm into the U-Like Hierarchical Residual Fusion Model.

Deep learning methodologies employed for biomass prediction often neglect the intricate relationships between labels and samples, resulting in suboptimal predictive performance. This paper introduces an advanced supervised contrastive learning technique, termed Improved Supervised Contrastive Deep Regression (SCDR), which is adept at effectively capturing the nuanced relationships between samples and labels in the feature space, thereby mitigating this limitation. Simultaneously, we propose the U-like Hierarchical Residual Fusion Network (BioUMixer), a bespoke biomass prediction network tailored for image data. BioUMixer enhances feature extraction from biomass image data, facilitating information exchange and fusion while considering both global and local features within the images. The efficacy of the proposed method is validated on the Pepper_Biomass dataset, which encompasses over 600 original images paired with corresponding biomass labels. The results demonstrate a noteworthy enhancement in deep regression tasks, as evidenced by performance metrics on the Pepper_Biomass dataset, including RMSE = 252.18, MAE = 201.98, and MAPE = 0.107. Additionally, assessment on the publicly accessible GrassClover dataset yields metrics of RMSE = 47.92, MAE = 31.74, and MAPE = 0.192. This study not only introduces a novel approach but also provides compelling empirical evidence supporting the digitization and precision improvement of agricultural technology. The research outcomes align closely with the identified problem and research statement, underscoring the significance of the proposed methodologies in advancing the field of biomass prediction through state-of-the-art deep learning techniques.

Temporal–spatial dynamics of typical ecosystem services in the Chaobai River basin in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion

Human demand for ecosystem services dominates ecosystem changes and impacts the temporal–spatial patterns of ecosystem services and their trade- offs. In the process of urbanization, the supply service, regulation service, and cultural service of the ecosystem are difficult to improve in synergy in the city and its surrounding areas, which is tough for urban construction and development. This study took the Chaobai River basin located in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion in northern China as the research area. The temporal and spatial changes from 2000 to 2015 of three typical ecosystem services in the study area, including food production, water conservation, and recreation, were evaluated and analyzed through modeling. The ecosystem service hotspots, service-gain areas, and service-loss areas were identified based on spatial analysis. The dynamic change mechanism of ecosystem services was explored from the perspective of land use change and hotspot analysis. The results showed that (1) recreation and food production services showed an increasing trend, while water conservation showed a fluctuating increasing trend. (2) The service-gain area was significantly larger than the service-loss area. (3) The main land use change form in the study area during the study period was the regional conversion of cultivated land to forest land and construction land, which led to the increase in water conservation services and the reduction of food production services in the corresponding patches. However, this conversion did not affect the overall improvement of the three ecosystem services in the study area. (4) Ecosystem service hotspots have gradually changed from being single-service dominant to two co-leading services. The area of food production-recreation hotspots continued to increase, indicating synergy between them. The area of water conservation-recreation hotspots continued to decrease, indicating trade-offs between them. Different types of ecosystem services improve in synergy in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion in the process of urbanization through the improvement of agricultural technology and productivity and the promotion of leisure and sightseeing agriculture. This provides an example for other cities.

Impact of Agricultural Mechanization Level on Farmers' Health Status in Western China: Analysis Based on CHARLS Data.

Agricultural mechanization is an important component of agricultural modernization, as it contributes to the improvement of agricultural technology and the rapid transformation of agricultural development. However, research on the connection between agricultural mechanization and farmers' health status is scarce. Thus, using the 2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS) data, this study explored how agricultural mechanization can affect farmers' health. OLS and 2SLS models were used for the study's analysis. Furthermore, we used a PSM model to check the robustness of our analysis. The findings showed that: (1) the current state of agricultural mechanization in western China harms the health of rural residents; (2) agricultural mechanization can mitigate the adverse effects on health by increasing farmers' living expenditure and improving their living environment; and (3) agricultural mechanization's effects on farmers' health are regionally and income-heterogeneous. Agricultural mechanization has a more significant impact on health in Tibetan areas and high-income regions. It has an almost minimal effect in non-Tibetan and low-income areas. This paper suggests approaches that can be used to encourage the rational development of agricultural mechanization and improve rural populations' health.

Tanzanian Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Improved Maize Technology: Analyzing Influencing Factors Using SEM and fsQCA Methods

The China–Tanzania Village-based Learning Center for Poverty Reduction project aims to demonstrate China’s experience in poverty reduction through developing smallholder agriculture at the village level, and through the promotion of improved technologies with the purpose of increasing agricultural productivity and improving village-level agricultural production. However, to promote technology application effectively, a better understanding of farmers’ behavioral intention toward improved maize technology is needed. This study uses microdata from 282 Tanzanian maize farmers. Compared with previous research, the innovation of our study is that the methods of structural equation model (SEM) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) are applied to study the influencing factors of farmers’ intention to adopt improved maize technology and the combination paths that affect farmers’ intention. The analysis results show that farmers’ behavior perceptions and compatibility perceptions positively impact their intention to choose agricultural technology. Three modes can trigger farmers’ intention to adopt technology: “behavior perception, compatibility perception, non-self-efficacy, facilitation conditions,” “behavior perception, social impact, non-self-efficacy, facilitation conditions,” and “compatibility perception, social impact, self-efficacy, facilitation conditions.” To increase maize yield and promote the extension of improved agricultural technology through the China–Tanzania Village-based Learning Center for Poverty Reduction project, it is necessary to choose an effective combination path to influence farmers’ intention to adopt the proposed changes. If farmers’ intention to adopt improved maize technology can be increased to a greater extent, it can accelerate the improvement of agricultural technology in Tanzania, thereby increasing agricultural productivity, improving agricultural production at the village level, and reducing poverty.

Variation and driving mechanism analysis of water footprint efficiency in crop cultivation in China

Water footprint regulation in agricultural production is of great significance to regional food, water and ecological sustainability. The spatial-temporal characteristics and driving mechanism of water footprint efficiency (WFE) in crop cultivation in China during 1996–2015 were analysed based on the quantification of the crop-water relationship. The results showed that China's total crop water footprint (TWF) was 1125.6 G m3, and the blue, green and grey components accounted for 24.4%, 57.4% and 18.2%, respectively. The national WFE was 0.681 and increased over time due to the improvement of agricultural technology. Spatial autocorrelation analysis showed that provinces with similar WFE values were clustered geographically and have gradually weakened since 2012. Provinces with a high WFE were concentrated in the southeast and northeast, and low-value provinces were distributed in the west of China. The main anthropogenic driving factors were the preliminary fertilizer application intensity (FAI) and population density (PD); however, these factors have been replaced by the irrigation efficiency (IE), agricultural water use ratio (AWR) and irrigation area proportion (IAP) in recent years. Specific regions should formulate water resource management policies according to their WFE performance, agricultural production scale and water resource endowment. The northeast should control crop cultivation and enhance the yield to solve water shortage problems, the central provinces should improve WFE, and the southern provinces should contribute to the promotion of national water use efficiency by expanding crop sowing and irrigation areas. This study provides a reference for water resource management in the context of social and environmental change.

Technology Implication of Agricultural Sectors in China: A CGE Analysis Based on CHINAGEM Model

The primary goal of Chinese agricultural development is to guarantee national food security and the supply of major agricultural products. Hence, the improvement of agricultural technology plays a vital role in China for economic development. Technological change in agricultural sector results in higher future economic growth as well as food security, both in food consumption and availability. By constructing China’s agriculture general equilibrium model (CGE), this paper explains the impact of agricultural technology change. This paper constructs a dynamic CGE model based on CHINAGEM model for analyzing the technology increase in China Agricultural sector and then describes the construction of database and policy scenario. Model such as Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model is used to conduct analysis of the economy-wide impacts of new agricultural technologies in China. In the general equilibrium model, some external variables are established; any part of structural changes caused by its exogenous variables can affect the entire system, resulting in general changes of goods, prices and quantity of factor. Simulation result of this paper indicates the agriculture sector output increases respectively; employment decreases; production cost decreases; and investment increases. Finally this paper describes the effects of the policy of technology changes by comparing policy scenario to baseline scenario and explains the impact of technology changes in China economy using CHINAGEM model.

Buckwheat breeding and production in Russia during the past 100 years

Average buckwheat yield in Russia has increased from 0.49 to 0.94 t/ha (1.9 times) in the period from the 1960s to 2011-2017, which is comparable to the growth of wheat yields for the same period (2.1 times, from 1.18 to 2.42 t/ha). However, if the growth in wheat yields occurred gradually, the entire growth of buckwheat yield falls on the beginning of the 21st century. Such differences in dynamics indicate that the increase in buckwheat yield is not related to the improvements in agricultural technology or climate changes. Nor it is related to any significant changes in the structure of buckwheat sowing regions, as the average yield in the most important region of buckwheat cultivation, Altai Territory, is only 0.91 t/ha (i. e. less than the country’s average). Chronologically, the period of an abrupt increase in the yield of buckwheat in Russia coincides with widespread introduction of cultivars with determinate growth habit (determinants). Since 1999, the share of determinant varieties in the total area under buckwheat in Russia has increased from 8.2 to 56.7%. Apparently, it was a main cause for the significant growth of buckwheat yield in Russia. Determinant cultivars based on the d (det) mutation are characterized by reduced plant height, reduced number of flowers on shoots, and more intensive and fast blossoming of inflorescences (and, consequently, more intensive and fast maturation). The increased morphological potential of productivity (the number of vegetative nodes on the stem and first – order branches) ensures a higher level of yield for these cultivars. At present, our lab is developing determinant buckwheat cultivars using some additional mutations. A major success in this work has been the world’s first determinant cultivar with green flowers (the gc mutation) named ‘Design’, which develops thicker and stronger fruit stalks with higher resistance to seed shattering.

Pengujian Efektivitas Tipe Pemangkasan Terhadap Produksi Tiga Varietas Semangka Pada Hidroponik Sistem Fertigasi (Drip Irrigation)

Watermelon is an annual horticultural commodity that is easily damaged (perishable) so it must be consumed in a fresh state and must be marketed after harvest. Opportunities to increase production and productivity of watermelon in Indonesia are still very wide open both through the intensification and improvement of agricultural technology. The purpose of this study is to study and obtain the type of pruning that provides the highest production in hydroponics watermelon cultivation Fertigation system. The experiment was conducted at Screen House Mekarsari Fruit Garden Bogor Regency. from April to Augustus 2018. The research method used is experimental method and experimental design used is Single Factor Random Design, which consists of 9 treatments in 3 repetitions. The usual is a combination of two types of cutting (Toping and Pruning) and three watermelon varieties (Amara F1, Angela F1, and Batu Sengkaling). The data of the research using the analysis of variance based on F test of 5% level. If there is a real difference, the analysis is continued with DMRT (Duncan Multiple Range Test) test of 5% level.The results showed that the application of the cutting type had a significant effect on the stem diameter of 21 HST, 28 HST, and 35 HST, flowering age, harvest age, fruit diameter, and fruit weight per plant, three watermelon varieties in the hydroponic fertigation system. Application of Toping Trimming on Amara F1 Varieties provides the highest watermelon yields of 39, 24 tonnes per hectare or 8.24 kg per plant in the hydroponic fertigasi system.

Building a Heaven on Earth: Religion, Activism, and Protest in Japanese Occupied Korea by Albert L. Park

Reviewed by: Building a Heaven on Earth: Religion, Activism, and Protest in Japanese Occupied Korea by Albert L. Park Carl Young Building a Heaven on Earth: Religion, Activism, and Protest in Japanese Occupied Korea by Albert L. Park. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015. 307pp. Research on Korean activism and nationalism during the Japanese colonial period is often focused on elite and urban movements. This is in spite of the fact that the vast majority of Koreans at this time still lived in rural areas, even though industrialization and urbanization was changing Korean society. Much of the research on the social and political outlook of Korean activism in colonial times also centers on the importance for Korea to not only seek independence, but also to establish an industrial capitalist economy or an industrial socialist economy as the foundation of a “modern” nation-state. Organized religion also played an important role in Korean activism and nationalism, although it is often felt that its influence declined in the 1920s and 1930s. Albert Park’s book Heaven on Earth attempts to remedy this neglect by focusing on Protestant Christian and Ch’ŏndogyo agrarian activism in colonial Korea in the 1920s and 1930s. These movements emphasized the importance of agriculture as the foundation of Korea’s economy and society and called for improvements in agricultural technology and cooperative organization of Korean agriculture as an alternative to industrialization and the social upheaval that it provoked. Park’s book is divided into two parts. The first part is made up of chapters outlining the origins of Tonghak/Ch’ŏndogyo and Protestant Christianity in Korea and their connection with social activism; economic and social changes in colonial Korea and their impact on rural society, agriculture, urbanization, and industrialization; and lastly, the origins of religious social ideology in Korea in [End Page 269] the 1920s and 1930s, especially as a response to anti-religious discourses that were gaining influence after the failure of the March 1919 independence demonstrations and the rise of secular socialist and bourgeois nationalist thought. Park uses the examples of Yi Tonhwa, a prominent Ch’ŏndogyo thinker, Hong Pyŏngsŏn of the YMCA, and the Presbyterian activist Pae Minsu to show how some religious activists reacted to the interactions of social and economic change and the place of religion in relation to modernity. These thinkers, in their different ways, came to the conclusion that modernization did not necessarily imply industrialization or secularization. Instead, a focus on cooperative organization of agriculture infused with religious principles would permit the majority of the Korean population to access the benefits of modernity while remaining in the countryside and thus reduce the social upheaval that came with industrial urbanization. The second part of the book focuses more specifically on the organization of agricultural cooperatives and campaigns of literacy and education to help promote peasant self-improvement. Denmark had become the showcase for agrarian cooperatives and the Ch’ŏndogyo-led Chosŏn nongminsa, Hong’s YMCA and Pae Minsu’s Presbyterian movement all inspired themselves from the Danish model. These movements were not necessarily against capitalist modernity, but instead proposed alternative models that would protect peasants and strengthen their village organizations and more fairly distribute profits from agriculture to producers in order to improve the lives of farmers and their villages. In this way, these cooperative movements were different from traditional agrarian movements that were based on Confucian ideology and which embraced traditional village organization as a way of fighting against capitalist economics and colonial modernization programs. Cooperative financing was also important in order to compete against banks and state funding and also to give more accessible credit to farmers. Religion was important to provide the organizational and moral glue to keep these cooperatives together. In this way, religion could show itself as an important force of social change in a modernizing society, aiming to create both new humans and new alternatives of social and economic organization. All of these organizations also focused on rural education and literacy promotion and published numerous journals and educational aids. Rural youth education was particularly important so as to educate future rural leaders and also to reduce the attractions of migration to the...

White Zimbabwean farmers in Nigeria: issues in ‘New Nigerian’ land deals and the implications for food and human security

In 2005 members of the Zimbabwe Commercial Farmers Union came to Nigeria for business. These ‘New Nigerian’ farmers, as they came to be known, were granted leases of prime lands each to be developed into ‘state-of-the-art farmlands’. The whole idea was to kick-start commercial agriculture which will eventually pave the way for improvements in agricultural technology in Nigeria. However, one wonders why it is preferable to engage foreigners instead of developing the capacities of the locals for the same purposes and what this portends for both food and human security in Nigeria. This article interrogates the issues and cross-cutting issues of concern in the concrete experiences of the ‘New Nigerian’ land deals. It notes that while many praise the arrangement and its seeming quick gains, the usual privileging of foreigners at the expense of the development of local capacity has constituted a significant downturn and snag with serious developmental consequences. It is further argued that the implications of all this, especially over land rights – a vital source of violent conflicts in the country – could be dire, as history has shown. This would ultimately impact on both food and human security in a country struggling to come to terms with food crisis and security.

Structural Change Out of Agriculture: Labor Push versus Labor Pull

A declining agricultural employment share is a key feature of economic development. Its main drivers are: improvements in agricultural technology combined with Engel's law release resources from agriculture (“labor push”), and improvements in industrial tech nology attract labor out of agriculture (“labor pull”). We present a model with both channels and evaluate the importance using data on 12 industrialized countries since the nineteenth century. Results suggest that the “pull” channel dominated until 1920 and the “push” channel dominated after 1960. The “pull” channel mattered more in countries in early stages of the structural transformation. This contrasts with modeling choices in recent literature. (JEL E23, N10, N53, O10, O47).

Structural Changes in Agriculture in the Pomurje Region After 1991

The Pomurje region is the most agricultural and the least developed region in Slovenia. Since 1991, the year when Slovenia gained its independence, the country transformed from the socialist system to the free market capitalism and was forced to restructure the agricultural policy. The decrease and the aging of the population, the abandon of the agriculture production and the decay of cultural landscape turned out to be serious problems. In Pomurje, agriculture was faced with unfavourable age structure of farmers in family farms. The Slovene agricultural policy was aware of this problem and took a number of measures to encourage the aging farmers to retire and the young generation to take over. Alongside this process began the process of merging land in the Pomurje rural areas. In the last 10 years, the agriculture in Pomurje underwent the improvement of agricultural technology, the specialization of productions and the enlargement of farms.

Developing Methods for Estimating the Impacts of Climate Change on Malnutrition

ISEE-0403 Background: Climate change is likely to influence future crop productivity globally, with greatest vulnerability in developing nations. To date, assessments of the climate-change attributable impacts on “health” have focused on food availability and access to estimate ‘millions at risk of hunger' and have neglected malnutrition as an outcome. We developed a new model for estimating climate change-attributable burdens of malnutrition for the QUEST-GSI project (global-scale impacts of climate change: an integrated multi-sectoral assessment), part of the NERC-funded QUEST research programme on global change. Methods: GLAM global crop model (Walker Institute) estimates of future cereals yields were used to drive a food availability model (Southampton University) to provide estimates of future undernourishment at the country level. As malnutrition has multiple causes, stunting in children aged under 5 was estimated as a function of undernourishment (food-causes) and a GDP-derived development indicator (non-food causes) of stunting. A Bayesian approach for estimating the parameters of the health impact model was used by combining prior expert knowledge of the parameter values with current health outcome data observations. Results: The model outcome measures are proportion of population with stunting for five world regions (Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia) under 4 SRES emissions scenarios. The proportion stunted was converted to DALYs following methods developed for the WHO global burden of disease assessment. Malnutrition burdens were estimated under three scenarios of improvements in agricultural technology. The main sources of uncertainty were described and quantified, where possible. Conclusion: Although the models indicate the burden of malnutrition is likely to increase under climate change, such estimates are very sensitive to model assumptions, and incorporate a large range of uncertainty from both the climate and socio-economic inputs and assumptions.

Agricultural technology and land use futures: The UK case

This paper explores how agricultural technology has interacted with recent land use in the UK and how it might do so in the next 50 years. From 1960 to 1985, farmers successfully used technology to increase the output of crop and animal products per unit of land and particularly of labour. This reduced the number of people employed in agriculture, and promoted larger and more specialised farm enterprises. Between 1985 and 2006, food prices were relatively low, and although labour productivity continued to increase, land productivity remained relatively static. However during this period, farmers started to address the effects of agriculture on reduced water quality and habitat loss. For established agricultural products, technological innovation tends to have an incremental effect, working through genetic improvement, the removal of abiotic and biotic stress (e.g. crop nutrition and protection, irrigation and drainage, and animal nutrition, health and housing) and the substitution of labour. Whereas the first two processes tend to be scale-neutral, the substitution of labour is usually easiest to achieve on larger farms. Other key areas for technological innovation include addressing air, soil and water quality, biodiversity, waste reduction, and information management. Over the next 50 years, large step-changes in land use arising from agricultural technology are predicted to arise from the development of new markets for agricultural products. A strong bioenergy sector will strengthen the links between crop commodity and energy prices and will have a major effect on future land use. Climate change and the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions will alter the relative profitability of crop and animal production systems. Lastly, increased public awareness of the links between food, health and the environment could substantially shift the demand for specific agricultural products. Continual improvements in agricultural technology are pivotal to providing society with the flexibility to balance the challenges of improving human well-being with the management of the planet's ecosystem. Increased technological innovation increases the probability that agricultural land can be used for other purposes, but the exact relationship is dependent on trade and environmental policies. The large external effects of agriculture mean that decisions regarding the adoption of future technologies should be taken by farmers working with other stakeholders.

POPULATION GROWTH AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

The role of population growth in the process of industrialization is studied in a general equilibrium model. It provides a formal presentation of Rostow’s insight of the role of a leading sector in industrialization. Population growth may lead to a shortage of food and a breakdown of the industrialization process. However, population growth may benefit the manufacturing sector in the adoption of increasing returns to scale technologies. Elasticity of demand for agricultural goods plays an important role in determining whether an improvement of agricultural technology or an increase of population is beneficial to the manufacturing sector. A comparison of China and Britain before the Industrial Revolution shows that research and development are necessary for sustained growth. Achieving industrialization independently requires a combination of a sufficiently large market size from the demand side and a sufficiently large supply of technologies from the supply side. (JELO14, E10, N10, Q01)

Structural Change Out of Agriculture: Labor Push Versus Labor Pull

The process of economic development is characterized by substantial rural-urban migrations and a decreasing share of agriculture in output and employment. The literature highlights two main engines behind this process of structural change: (i) improvements in agricultural technology combined with the effect of Engel's law of demand resources out of the agricultural sector (the push hypothesis), and (ii) improvements in industrial technology attract labor into this sector (the pull hypothesis). We present a simple model that features both channels and use it to explore their relative importance. We evaluate the U.S. time series since 1800 and a sample of 13 industrialized countries starting in the 19th century. Our results suggest that, on average, the pull channel dominates. This contrasts with popular modeling choices in the recent literature.

Economic development and the role of agricultural technology

AbstractIn earlier debates on economic development, the agricultural sector's role was somewhat controversial. While dualistic models highlighted the importance of agriculture, the mainstream literature placed a greater emphasis on the creation of a modern industrial sector. Soon agriculture disappeared from the mainstream development literature to re‐emerge recently with a variety of multiple‐sector growth models emphasizing the key role of agriculture and specifically technology in agriculture. This article is an empirical cross‐country analysis of agricultural technology's role in economic development. Specifically, the hypothesis being tested is whether improvements in agricultural technology have a significant impact on long‐run economic growth. The results indicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on both measures of economic growth and human development.

Strukturne spremembe v slovenskem kmetijstvu in razvoj podeželja

Temeljna značilnost slovenskega kmetijstva je, da se je dolgo časa razvija-lo v povsem drugačni smeri kot kmetijstvo v EU, kar še posebej velja zaagrarno strukturo. Medtem ko se je v državah z razvitim kmetijstvomrazmeroma hitro povečevala velikost obratov in vzporedno z izboljševanjemkmetijske tehnologije specializacija pridelave, pa se je vse do začetkadevetdesetih let 20. stoletja (predvsem v zasebnem sektorju slovenskegakmetijstva) odvijal ravno obraten proces. Evidentno je bilo nenehnoslabšanje zemljiške in posestne strukture, nizka delovna intenzivnost in vnekaterih območjih tudi opuščanje pridelave. Trdimo lahko, da se je vslovenskem kmetijstvu nenehno poglabljala protislovnost med družbeno-ekonomsko strukturo kmečkega prebivalstva in agrarno strukturo.Posledice se kažejo v tem, da imamo z vidika deleža kmečkega prebivalstvav Sloveniji že socialno in demografsko strukturo razvite družbe, medtem koagrarna struktura še vedno izkazuje značilnosti klasične agrarne družbe.

Subsidized imports, currency devaluation and agricultural decline: impact on food supply and demand balance in Zaire

An adjusted small world trade liberalization model, with 1984 as the base year, was used to predict changes in Zaire's net agricultural trade due to export subsidies from developed countries, currency devaluation and stagnation in small-farm technology. Given the availability of low-cost food grain imports under the US Export Enhancement Program, Zairian wheat imports increase 8.2% in the intermediate run, assuming foreign exchange is available for food imports. Furthermore, if improvements in agricultural technology are not forthcoming, output of food and export crops will decline, resulting in a loss of revenue from the farm sector and a deterioration in the country's balance of trade. However, since 1983 currency devaluation appears to have had the largest impact on net trade in food and export crops.

Some Considerations on the Conditions for the Formation of BURAKU in Hokkaido in Late-Meiji to Taisho Period

Most of the rural communities in Hokkido were formed during the years from 1890 to 1920's, when people from all parts of Japan (NAICHI) migrated into Hokkaido at the rate 10, 000 to 260, 000 households a year. This means that, every year, 0.10% to 0.24% of all the households in Japan immigrated to Hokkado, and 20% to 60% of these migrating households were engaged in farming. Though they did not have neighboring, personal, and or face-to-face relationship with each other, these immigrants formed social relations and social organizations whose unit was each household as IE.From this fact, we can hypothesize about the rural society in the main land Japan (NAICHI) that the were conditions, both outside and inside of each BURAKU, which made people leave their BURAKU with the whole family and quit farming. Some people chose to, and others were forced to leave their BURAKU : and some of these people migrated into Hokkaido.I. In Japan, total arable land was 5, 060, 000 CHO in 1900 and 6, 080, 000 CHO in 1920. During these years, the farming population decreased from 16, 840, 000 to 14, 120, 000 ; the number of farming households increased slightly to 5, 480, 000 in 1920. Let us compare the number of farming households and the mean of arable land per a farming household in 1890 and 1920. In 1920 the total number of farming households in each prefecture was 80% to 130% of that in 1890. The number decreased in more that half of the prefectures. The mean of arable land per a farming household in eace prefecture in 1920 was 80% to 160% of that in 1890. In more than half of the prefectures the mean increased. Thus, with the improvement of agricultural technology, there were many cases that farmers left their BURAKU with the whole family.II. The productivity and stability of rice prodution increased with the improvement of agricultural technology. In 1990's this cased reduction and break down of such type of land holding that landlords themselves cultivate some part of their own land besides renting -ZINUSHI-TEZUKURI KEIEI-. This trend is one of the conditions which brought about the situation described in I.Immigrants to Hokkaido came from all parts of Japan ; among them many came from TOHOKU and HOKURIKU regions, where only rice was produced, at a higher rate especially during the years from 1905 to 1920's. The number of households immigrated from the prefectures of these regions, from 1892 to 1922, amounted to 60% of all the households immigrated to Hokkaido during these years. Most of the BURAKU in these prefectures were under the domination of “huge” landlords who owned 100 CHO to 1, 000 CHO -KYODAI ZINUSHI. Rapid technological innovation which took place in these BRRAKU gave rise to the domination of these absentee, huge landlords, while the smaller landlords who lived within ruined. The absentee, huge landlords managed to tenants through land agents -SAHAI or TEDAI. The relationship between the landlord and the tenat came to be impersonal, non-neighboring, and to have the nature of contract. Both on the side of landlords and the tenants, there were motives which caused severe competition of selecting tenants to survive in the BURAKU. As its result, some of the tenants increased their land, and others left BURAKU and or farming, so did the ruined, smaller landlords too. Part of these people migrated into Hokkaido.