Improve Prospective Memory Performance Research Articles

The role of offloading intentions on future-oriented thinking.

Offloading (e.g., using Google calendar reminders) has been shown to improve prospective memory (PM). One unstudied aspect of PM offloading is whether having reminders reduces our future-oriented thinking about PM intentions in contexts in which the intention cannot be fulfilled. In the current study, participants were given two blocks of an ongoing lexical decision task. Prior to beginning the task, participants formed an intention to make a special response to PM targets only in block 2. Participants in the reminder condition had the PM intention displayed at the top of the screen in block 2, whereas those in the no-reminder condition did not. To assess activation of the intention out of context, PM lures (Experiment 1) or thought probes (Experiments 2 and 3) were presented in block 1. Results showed that reminders improved PM performance in block 2 but did not reduce lure interference or PM-related thoughts in block 1. These findings suggest that offloaded memory representations remain as activated and accessible as non-offloaded representations outside the context in which intentions can be fulfilled.

Strategic monitoring improves prospective memory: A meta-analysis.

Monitoring the environment for target events that trigger prospective memory (PM) retrieval requires cognitive resources, reflected by costs to ongoing task performance (i.e., worse accuracy and/or slower response times). Strategic monitoring refers to the use of context to engage or disengage monitoring when a PM target is anticipated or unanticipated. Laboratory strategic monitoring studies have found mixed results as to whether context specification improves PM performance. This study employed a meta-analytic technique to assess the overall effect of context specification on PM performance and ongoing task metrics of strategic monitoring. Overall, context specification improved PM performance when the target was anticipated and improved ongoing task performance (speed and accuracy) when the target was not anticipated. Moderator analyses revealed the degree of slowing in anticipated contexts predicted how much context specification improved PM performance. However, the benefits to PM performance from context specification differed by the type of procedure used. PM performance was improved when context changes could be predicted during blocked or proximity procedures, but not when context varied randomly in trial-level procedures. These results provide insights into the mechanisms underlying strategic monitoring and guidance for researchers on which procedures to be use depending on the theory-driven questions.

Benefits from prospective memory offloading depend on memory load and reminder type.

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to complete a task at the appropriate moment in the future. Past research has found reminders can improve PM performance in both laboratory and naturalistic settings, but few projects have examined the circumstances when and what types of reminders are most beneficial. Three experiments in the present study tested the influence of reminders in an event-based PM task under different cognitive loads. An additional study examined how effective reminders of different types were. In Experiments 1 (specific targets) and 2 (nonspecific targets), load was manipulated by having participants respond to a single (low load) or multiple (high load) targets. In Experiment 3, the association between target-action word pairs was manipulated by presenting strongly associated pairs (low load) or weakly associated pairs (high load). Experiment 4 used target-action word pairs and varied the type of reminder. Participants in the reminder conditions had target (Experiments 1 and 2), target and action (Experiment 3) or target and/or action (Experiment 4) reminders listed at the top of the screen throughout the PM task. Across the first 3 experiments, it was found that the benefit of reminders was greater under high load than low load conditions. Experiment 4 found that target-action reminders improved PM, while target-only or action-only reminders did not. Importantly, the improvements in PM from reminders occurred without cost to ongoing task performance. Together these results suggest that reminders can be beneficial for reducing PM failures, particularly under high load, without the potential downside of increased effort expenditure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective memory performance and its improvement in individuals with high schizotypal traits: Evidence from eye-tracking studies

ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine prospective memory (PM) performance and the potential effect of implementation intention on PM performance and the underlying mechanisms in individuals with high schizotypyal traits (HSTs) using eye-tracking paradigms. MethodsIn Experiment 1, 30 individuals with HSTs and 30 individuals with low schizotypal traits (LSTs) underwent a visual search task that involved PM cues, and participants’ eye movements were recorded. In Experiment 2, 50 individuals with HSTs were randomly assigned to the implementation intention group and typical instruction group. ResultsIn Experiment 1, individuals with HSTs had a lower PM accuracy and performed less PM cue monitoring (indicated by fewer total fixation counts on distractor words) than individuals with LSTs. In Experiment 2, implementation intention significantly improved PM accuracy and increased total fixation counts on distractor words in individuals with HSTs compared to the HST group with typical instruction. ConclusionsIndividuals with HSTs were impaired in PM and showed reduced cue monitoring compared to individuals with LSTs. Implementation intention improved PM performance and facilitated cue monitoring in individuals with HSTs. SignificanceOur findings indicate that cue monitoring may be an important process of intervention target for PM for individuals in the schizophrenia spectrum.

Did you hear? Auditory prospective memory cues are more beneficial for autistic than for non-autistic children and adolescents

BackgroundThe transition from primary to secondary school is particularly difficult for autistic children, a transition underpinned by an increase in prospective memory (PM) demands. AimsTo better understand PM in autistic children of the relevant age range and its underlying processes, the current study investigated the impact of cue salience (distinctiveness) on PM in autistic and non-autistic children and adolescents. The study was unique in manipulating the visual and auditory salience of PM cues. Salient cues are assumed to put lower demands on executive control resources as compared to cues that blend in with the ongoing activity. Methods and proceduresThe children completed a computer-based categorisation task in which an event-based PM task was embedded. The salience of PM cues was manipulated (low, high visual and high auditory salience). Outcomes and resultsResults revealed that both groups benefitted from an increase in visual and auditory salience, but only autistic participants were faster to respond to auditory cues. Conclusions and implicationsIncreased cue salience improved PM performance for all children. Positive effects of auditory cues were especially evident in autistic children.

Effects of a Multi-Component Training Program on Healthy Older Adults' Prospective Memory Performance: Assessing Change Over Time.

Prospective Memory (PM) is a cognitive function affected by aging. PM is the memory of future intentions and is significantly involved in everyday life, especially among older adults. Nevertheless, there are a few studies focused on PM training among healthy older adults and these studies did not report the optimal duration of training regarding improving PM performance among older adults. The present study aimed to determine the effective duration for training PM performance among healthy older adults. The current study was a randomized, controlled, single-blind, within-participants crossover trial including a training program with a duration of 12 h. The sample of 25 older adults aged 55 to 74 years recruited from the active members of the University of the Third Age (U3A), Kuala Lumpur/Selangor, their family members, and friends. The study design ensured some participants would receive the training after baseline while others would wait for 6 weeks after the baseline before receiving the training. All participants were evaluated five times: at baseline, 6, 12, 16, and at 24 weeks post-baseline. Moreover, the training program ensured all participants were assessed after each training session. The minimum number of hours to achieve training effects for this multi-component training program was eight. Results supported the efficacy of the training program in improving PM performance among healthy older adults. Also, the optimal duration for the multicomponent training program on PM performance among healthy older adults was obtained. This trial is registered at isrctn.com (#ISRCTN57600070).

Episodic future thinking together with observational learning benefits prospective memory in high‐functioning Korsakoff’s syndrome patients

ObjectivePatients with Korsakoff’s syndrome (KS) have difficulty carrying out tasks which rely on prospective memory (PM). Since remembering to carry out an action in the future is crucial for living independently, it is of primary interest to develop strategies that improve PM performance in KS patients.DesignThe study employed a computer categorization task as an ongoing activity into which a PM task was embedded. We included episodic future thinking (EFT) and observational learning (Experiment 2) to boost PM.MethodsExperiment 1 evaluated the efficacy of EFT following written PM task instructions in ten KS patients. Due to floor‐level PM performance in Experiment 1, Experiment 2 included an instructional video demonstrating the PM intention. In Experiment 2, twenty‐six KS patients performed both conditions (EFT and no‐EFT) at least 1 week apart, while twelve controls with alcohol use disorder without KS performed the no‐EFT condition. In Experiment 2, the PM instructions were also shown through video (observational learning component). Mild cognitive impairment was assessed in a short test battery.ResultsExperiment 1 showed overall floor performance in both conditions. Experiment 2 showed that KS patients performed PM tasks less accurately than the control group in the no‐EFT condition. In Experiment 2, where the observational learning component was included, EFT improved PM performance in KS patients. This effect was driven by a sub‐group of high‐functioning KS patients.ConclusionsThis study showed the value of an observational learning component together with EFT in improving PM performance, in relatively high‐functioning KS patients.Practitioner points KS patients performed the PM task less accurately than non‐KS controls with alcohol use disorder, confirming PM impairment in this patient population.Controls with alcohol use disorder performed the PM task at ceiling level.Showing an instructional video demonstrating the PM intention improved PM performance and later recall of PM task instructions in KS patients.Episodic future thinking strategy improved PM performance in KS patients with relatively intact cognitive functioning.

The effect of implementation intentions on prospective memory performance in patients with schizophrenia: A multinomial modeling approach

Patients with schizophrenia (SCZ) consistently show prospective memory (PM) impairments, and the technique of implementation intentions has been shown to improve PM performance in these patients. PM is considered to have prospective and retrospective components. However, it remains unclear which component of PM is impaired in patients with SCZ and which component(s) is facilitated by implementation intentions (II). The present study aimed to examine these two issues. Forty-two patients with SCZ and 42 matched healthy controls were randomly assigned to an II group or a typical instruction group. All participants were administered a color-matching PM task. Results showed that, using a multinomial-modeling approach, patients with SCZ exhibited impairment in the retrospective component of PM. In addition, while II improved the prospective PM component in healthy controls, both prospective and retrospective PM components in patients with SCZ were improved. Together, our results shed light on the mechanism of PM impairment in SCZ patients and the mechanism of II in improving PM performance.

Cognitive Flexibility Improves Memory for Delayed Intentions.

The ability to delay the execution of a goal until the appropriate time, prospective memory (PM), can be supported by the following two different cognitive control strategies: proactive control involving working memory maintenance of the goal and active monitoring of the environment; or reactive control relying on timely retrieval of goal information from episodic memory. Certain situations tend to favor each strategy, but the manner in which individuals adjust their strategy in response to changes in the environment is unknown. Across two experiments, human participants performed a delayed-recognition PM task embedded in an ongoing visual search task that fluctuated in difficulty. A control strategy was identified from moment to moment using reaction time costs and fMRI measures of goal maintenance. We found that people fluidly modified control strategies in accordance with changes in task demands (e.g., shifting toward proactive control when task difficulty decreased). This cognitive flexibility proved adaptive as it was associated with improved PM performance.

B-53 Inefficient Clock-Checking is Associated with Reduced Prospective Memory Performance in Veterans with Blast-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Abstract Objective We investigated whether clock-checking frequency during a prospective memory (PM) task differed between Veterans with reported histories of blast-related mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and Veteran Controls (VCs) without a history mTBI. We hypothesized that, compared to controls, the mTBI group would less frequently clock check. Additionally, we expected that reduced clock-checking would contribute to poorer time-based PM performance in the mTBI group. Method Twenty-seven Veterans (9 mTBI and 18 VC) with sufficient effort testing completed a structured TBI history interview, the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL) and the Memory for Intentions Test (MIST) as a PM task. During MIST administration, examiners recorded clock-checking behavior each time a participant physically turned a digital clock to observe the current time. Results Compared to VCs, the mTBI group performed worse on the Time subscale of the MIST [Mean (SD) VC = 6.7 (1.1), mTBI = 5.7 (1.1), p < .05], and demonstrated significantly fewer clock-checks over the duration of the test [VC = 14.2(4.7), mTBI = 10.2 (3.4), p < .05]. Clock-checking significantly correlated with MIST Time subscale performance (r = .38, p < .05). Groups did not significantly differ in PCL scores, and PCL scores did not significantly correlate with clock-checking counts. Conclusion Our preliminary results are the first to show that clock-checking behavior may contribute to reduced performance on time-based PM tasks in Veterans with histories of mTBI. Specifically, our findings demonstrate that participants with mTBI employ an inefficient time monitoring strategy wherein infrequent clock checking contributes to poorer test performance. These findings suggest that strategies to improve clock checking may improve PM performance.

Neural correlates of the effect of implementation intention on prospective memory.

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to do something in the future. Implementation intention refers to a self-regulatory strategy in the form of "If …, then …" planning that can improve PM performance. However, the neural basis of the effect of implementation intention on PM remains unclear, as do the phases of PM that are affected by implementation intention. This study aimed to address these issues. Healthy participants were randomly assigned to the implementation intention (n = 18) and typical instruction (n = 20) conditions. All of them underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning when performing a PM task, which differentiated encoding, maintenance, and execution phases. Results demonstrated that participants in the implementation intention group showed different brain activations compared to participants in the typical instruction group. During the encoding phase, the implementation intention group showed increased activations in the inferior frontal gyrus (BA 10) and supramarginal gyrus (BA 40) compared to the typical instruction group; during the maintenance phase, the typical instruction group showed stronger activations in the inferior frontal gyrus (BA 46) than the implementation intention group; during the execution phase, the typical instruction group showed increased activations in the precentral gyrus (BA 6) and middle frontal gyrus (BA 8) than the implementation intention group. These results demonstrated the neural correlates of implementation intention on PM in different phases, and support the conclusion of our previous review based on fMRI evidence that implementation intention's improvement of PM performance is not fully automatic.

Implementation intention training for prospective memory in schizophrenia: A 3-month follow-up study

The beneficial effect of implementation intentions (II) on prospective memory (PM) deficits in patients with schizophrenia has been reported. However, these studies were limited to brief interventions such that the transfer and long-term effects of II training remains unclear. This study examined whether a 10-session II programme could improve PM performance, social functioning and functional capacity in patients with schizophrenia immediately after training and at 3-month follow-up. Patients with schizophrenia (n = 42) recruited from the community were randomly assigned to II training (n = 21) or treatment as usual (TAU) (n = 21). Participants in the II group learned the verbal and imagery component of II and were encouraged to apply these strategies in their daily lives. We found that the II group performed better than the TAU group on computer-based PM tasks and a daily life PM task (telephone call at specified date and time) at post-treatment and at 3-month follow-up. The II group also exhibited better working ability than the TAU group at post-treatment. Our results suggest that the II intervention programme may have lasting beneficial effects in PM performance and significant transfer effects to functional capacity in schizophrenia patients.

Effect of emotional cues on prospective memory performance in patients with schizophrenia and major depressive disorder

Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to carry out future intentions when prompted by a cue, and previous studies have suggested that emotional PM cues may enhance PM performance. This study examined the influence of emotional cues on PM performance in patients with schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. All participants were required to respond to emotional or neutral PM cues while completing a working memory task. Healthy participants showed improved PM performance with positive and negative cues. Patients with major depressive disorder were not impaired in PM performance and showed significant improvement in PM performance when cued by negative but not positive cues. Patients with schizophrenia had impaired PM performance irrespective of cue emotionality. In addition, the majority of patients with schizophrenia failed to show an emotional enhancement effect, and only those who had normal arousal ratings for negative PM cues showed emotional enhancement effect. These findings show for the first time that patients with schizophrenia exhibit PM impairments even with emotional cues, and suggest that arousal may be a critical factor for schizophrenia patients to utilize emotional cues to facilitate execution of future actions. In patients with major depressive disorder, our findings suggest that the negative bias in attention and retrospective memory may also extend to memory for future actions. These novel findings have both theoretical and clinical implications.

Non-Dependent and Dependent Daily Cannabis Users Differ in Mental Health but Not Prospective Memory Ability.

Research suggests that daily cannabis users have impaired memory for past events, but it is not clear whether they are also impaired in prospective memory (PM) for future events. The present study examined PM in daily cannabis users who were either dependent (n = 18) or non-dependent (n = 18), and compared them with non-using controls (n = 18). The effect of future event simulation (FES) on PM performance was also examined. Participants were matched across groups on age, gender, and highest level of education. The virtual week (VW) was used to objectively assess PM abilities, both at baseline and following FES. Other measures used were: cannabis use variables, immediate and delayed prose recall, phonemic and category fluency, spot-the-word test (premorbid intelligence), Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, and a measure of schizotypy (Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences: unusual experiences subscale). No group differences were found in PM performance on the VW, and FES did not improve PM performance in any group. Dependent cannabis users scored higher on depression, anxiety, and schizotypy than both other groups with non-dependent cannabis users scoring at a similar level to controls. There were no group differences in alcohol use. Findings suggest that when carefully matched on baseline variables, and not differing in premorbid IQ or alcohol use, young, near-daily cannabis users do not differ from non-using controls in PM performance.

Schizophrenia and prospective memory impairments: a review

Objective: Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to carry out intended actions in the future. Prospective forgetting has been shown to be one of the key cognitive impairments that contribute to medication non-adherence, reduced independence, and social dysfunction in individuals with schizophrenia. This review aimed to provide an up to date appraisal of the nature and extent of PM impairments in individuals with schizophrenia and those who are at risk and to discuss clinical applications in this area. Method: We searched and reviewed relevant studies in this area between 2013 and August 2017. Results: Findings of studies conducted so far indicate that PM is severely impaired in schizophrenia. The most frequent type of PM errors in individuals with schizophrenia is no response, or failure to carry out the intended action. PM impairments in schizophrenia have been found to be related to everyday functioning. For individuals with schizophrenia, a number of assessment techniques have been developed to assess PM. These include: self-report questionnaires, computerized tasks, psychometric test batteries, and virtual reality tasks. So far, a few studies have used the compensatory approach to improve PM performance in individuals with schizophrenia and those who are at risk, and the results reported are promising. Based on findings of these studies, suggestions for the development of interventions for PM impairments in individuals with schizophrenia are provided. Conclusions: PM dysfunction is an important impairment in individuals with schizophrenia, and more rehabilitation studies to improve PM performance in these individuals are needed.

Improving Prospective Memory in Persons With Parkinson Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background. Prospective memory (PM) is essential for productive and independent living and necessary for compliance with prescribed health behaviors. Parkinson disease (PD) can cause PM deficits that are associated with activity limitations and reduced quality of life. Forming implementation intentions (IIs) is an encoding strategy that may improve PM in this population. Objective. To determine the effect of IIs on PM performance in PD. Methods. This was a laboratory-based randomized controlled trial. Participants with mild to moderate PD without dementia (n = 62) performed a computerized PM test (Virtual Week) under standard instructions. One week later they were randomly allocated to perform it again while using either IIs or a rehearsal (RR) encoding strategy. Results. PM performance was better with the use of both strategies relative to standard instructions. This effect was larger for tasks with event-based compared with time-based cues. In addition, IIs resulted in a larger effect than RR for the nonrepeated tasks. Conclusions. Strategies that support full encoding of PM cues and actions can improve PM performance among people with PD, particularly for tasks with cues that are readily available in the environment. IIs may be more effective than RR for nonrepeated tasks, but this finding warrants verification. Future work should address transfer of strategy use from the laboratory to everyday life. Targeted strategies to manage PM impairment could improve function and quality of life and significantly affect clinical care for people with PD.

Improving prospective memory performance with future event simulation in traumatic brain injury patients.

Previous studies have shown that traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients have difficulties with prospective memory (PM). Considering that PM is closely linked to independent living it is of primary interest to develop strategies that can improve PM performance in TBI patients. This study employed Virtual Week task as a measure of PM, and we included future event simulation to boost PM performance. Study 1 evaluated the efficacy of the strategy and investigated possible practice effects. Twenty-four healthy participants performed Virtual Week in a no strategy condition, and 24 healthy participants performed it in a mixed condition (no strategy - future event simulation). In Study 2, 18 TBI patients completed the mixed condition of Virtual Week and were compared with the 24 healthy controls who undertook the mixed condition of Virtual Week in Study 1. All participants also completed a neuropsychological evaluation to characterize the groups on level of cognitive functioning. Study 1 showed that participants in the future event simulation condition outperformed participants in the no strategy condition, and these results were not attributable to practice effects. Results of Study 2 showed that TBI patients performed PM tasks less accurately than controls, but that future event simulation can substantially reduce TBI-related deficits in PM performance. The future event simulation strategy also improved the controls' PM performance. These studies showed the value of future event simulation strategy in improving PM performance in healthy participants as well as in TBI patients. TBI patients performed PM tasks less accurately than controls, confirming prospective memory impairment in these patients. Participants in the future event simulation condition out-performed participants in the no strategy condition. Future event simulation can substantially reduce TBI-related deficits in PM performance. Future event simulation strategy also improved the controls' PM performance.

Development of a paradigm for studying the effects of brief Goal Management Training with Implementation Intentions

ABSTRACTCognitive rehabilitation interventions such as Goal Management Training (GMT) and the Implementation Intentions strategy have been developed with the aim of improving prospective memory (PM) in everyday life. The aim of this study was to provide “proof of concept” for an experimental paradigm that could be used to evaluate the effects of Goal Management Implementation Intentions training (GMTii) derived from the principles of GMT and Implementation Intentions. Thirty adults were randomised to either GMTii or a control training condition. A computerised PM task that involved an ongoing task into which a PM task was embedded was completed pre-training and post-training. In addition, a novel yet similar PM task was completed post-training to assess generalisability of any effect. The two groups had similar overall performance pre-training. Post-training, the GMTii group demonstrated significantly better performance on the familiar computerised PM task showing less performance decay over time compared to the control group. The GMTii group also showed better performance on the novel task. The results demonstrated that brief GMTii significantly improved PM performance compared to control training and that computerised PM tasks were sensitive to this effect. The results suggest that this paradigm could be used to study the effects of metacognitive rehabilitation interventions.

Working Memory Load and Reminder Effect on Event-Based Prospective Memory of High- and Low-Achieving Students in Math

The effects of working memory (WM) demand and reminders on an event-based prospective memory (PM) task were compared between students with low and high achievement in math. WM load (1- and 2-back tasks) was manipulated as a within-subject factor and reminder (with or without reminder) as a between-subject factor. Results showed that high-achieving students outperformed low-achieving students on all PM and n-back tasks. Use of a reminder improved PM performance and thus reduced prospective interference; the performance of ongoing tasks also improved for all students. Both PM and n-back performances in low WM load were better than in high WM load. High WM load had more influence on low-achieving students than on high-achieving students. Results suggest that low-achieving students in math were weak at PM and influenced more by high WM load. Thus, it is important to train these students to set up an obvious reminder for their PM and improve their WM.

The effect and mechanisms of implementation intention in improving prospective memory performance in schizophrenia patients.

People with schizophrenia (SCZ) have been shown to have prospective memory (PM) deficits. PM refers to the ability to remember to perform delayed intentions in the future and plays an important role in everyday independent functioning in SCZ. To date, few studies have investigated methods to improve PM in SCZ. This study aimed to examine whether implementation intention can improve PM performance and to explore its underlying mechanisms. Fifty people with SCZ and 50 demographically matched healthy controls (HC) participated in this study. Participants were randomly assigned to an implementation intention condition or a control instruction condition. Participants were required to make PM responses when PM cue words appeared while they were undertaking an ongoing task with two levels of cognitive load (1-back or 2-back). Results showed that people with SCZ were impaired in PM, and implementation intention improved PM performances for both SCZ and HC. Implementation intention improved PM performance in SCZ in both the low and the high cognitive load conditions without ongoing task cost, suggesting that implementation intention improved PM remembering in an automatic way. These results indicate that implementation intention may be a beneficial technique for improving PM performances in people with SCZ.