Improved Power Conversion Efficiency Research Articles

Biomaterial Improves the Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells by Passivating Defects and Inhibiting Ion Migration.

With the rapid improvement of power conversion efficiency (PCE), perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have broad application prospects and their industrialization will be the next step. Nevertheless, the performance and long-term stability of the devices are limited by the defect-induced nonradiative recombination centers and ions' migration inside the perovskite films. Here, usnic acid (UA), an easy-to-obtain and efficient natural biomaterial with a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) and four carbonyl groups (-C═O) was added to MAPbI3 perovskite precursor to regulate the crystallization process by slowing the crystallization rate, thereby expanding the crystal size and preparing perovskite films with low defect density. In addition, UA anchors the uncoordinated Pb2+ and suppresses the migration of I-ions, which enhances the stability of the perovskite film. Consequently, an impressive PCE exceeding 20% was achieved for inverted structure MAPbI3-based PSCs. More impressively, the optimized PSCs maintained 78% of the initial PCE under air with high humidity (RH ≈ 65%, 25-30 °C) for 1000 h. UA can be extracted from the plant, usnea, making it inexpensive and easy to obtain. Our work demonstrates the application of the plant material in PSCs and their industrialization, which is significant nowadays.

Photochemical optimization of fluorescent dye-doped PDMS for enhanced luminescent solar concentrator performance

Luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) that incorporate organic dyes face challenges such as self-absorption loss and aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) as doping concentration increases, limiting the dye loading capacity. Particularly for dyes with a small Stokes shift, losses due to self-absorption or quenching are prominent even at low concentrations, hindering the attainment of high power conversion efficiency (PCE) in LSCs. Additionally, exposure of the dye-impregnated polymer matrix to oxygen, moisture, UV light, and other factors leads to a decrease in luminescence efficiency and stability due to the photooxidation reaction of the phosphor. This study presents a facile approach for enhancement of the efficiency and environmental stability of coumarin 6 (C6) dye-doped polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) LSC through ultraviolet ozone (UVO) treatment. Photocleavage of the C6 dimer into a C6 monomer through UVO treatment leads to a significant enhancement in luminescence. Additionally, thin SiOx layers formed on both sides of the LSC not only assist in capturing luminescent light more efficiently but also block the penetration of oxygen and moisture into the LSC, resulting improved device stability. UVO-treated LSC shows approximately 32 % improvement in PCE compared to bare LSCs and exhibits significantly better stability during the 30-day long-term performance test.

Fostering Charge Carrier Transport and Absorber Growth Properties in CZTSSe Thin Films with an ALD-SnO2 Capping Layer.

The present study demonstrates that precursor passivation is an effective approach for improving the crystallization process and controlling the detrimental defect density in high-efficiency Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) thin films. It is achieved by applying the atomic layer deposition (ALD) of the tin oxide (ALD-SnO2) capping layer onto the precursor (Cu-Zn-Sn) thin films. The ALD-SnO2 capping layer was observed to facilitate the homogeneous growth of crystalline grains and mitigate defects prior to sulfo-selenization in CZTSSe thin films. Particularly, the CuZn and SnZn defects and deep defects associated with Sn were effectively mitigated due to the reduction of Sn2+ and the increase in Sn4+ levels in the kesterite CZTSSe film after introducing ALD-SnO2 on the precursor films. Subsequently, devices integrating the ALD-SnO2 layer exhibited significantly reduced recombination and efficient charge transport at the heterojunction interface and within the bulk CZTSSe absorber bulk properties. Finally, the CZTSSe device showed improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 8.46% to 10.1%. The incorporation of ALD-SnO2 revealed reduced defect sites, grain boundaries, and surface roughness, improving the performance. This study offers a systematic examination of the correlation between the incorporation of the ALD-SnO2 layer and the improved PCE of CZTSSe thin film solar cells (TFSCs), in addition to innovative approaches for improving absorber quality and defect control to advance the performance of kesterite CZTSSe devices.

High‐Performance Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells by Dual Interfaces Modification with Identical Organic Salt

AbstractThe improvement of power conversion efficiency (PCE) and stability of perovskite solar cells (PSC) relies on the enhanced quality of perovskite layer and the modification of its adjacent interfaces. For this purpose, a multifunctional organic passivation molecule 1‐(4‐Fluorophenyl) biguanide hydrochloride (F‐BHCl) is introduced to the top and bottom interfaces of the perovskite layer. The PCE of PSC after the modification of double interfaces with F‐BHCl is significantly increased from 22.41% (unmodified) to 25.14%, and the storage, thermal, and operation stability is also improved. The comprehensive theoretical and experimental studies verify that due to its versatile functional groups and adaptation, F‐BHCl can significantly improve the quality of perovskite film, fully passivate several kinds of common defects, smoothen the top surfaces of perovskite film, and construct “molecular bridges” with carrier transporters on both the top and bottom surfaces, leading to significantly reduced non‐recombination and carrier transport losses. As a result, a significant increase is achieved in the open circuit voltage and fill factor as well as the whole performance of the device.

Multifunctional Hydroxylamine‐O‐Sulfonic Acid as Additives for Highly Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells

Despite the rapid development of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), defects in the devices continue to impede further improvements in power conversion efficiency and operational stability. In this work, the use of hydroxylamine‐O‐sulfonic acid as a bifunctional molecule to enhance the performance of PSCs is described. Strong coordination exists between the sulfonic acid group and uncoordinated Pb2+ of perovskite, while the NH bond on amino group interacts with uncoordinated I−. Thus, due to the synergistic contribution of sulfonic acid group and amino groups, the high‐quality perovskite film with good crystallinity and low defect density is achieved. As a result, the optimal devices exhibit an enhanced efficiency of 23.33%, which is much higher than that of the control device (21.53%). Notably, the optimized target device exhibits excellent long‐term operational stability, retaining over 90% of its initial efficiency after 480 h at 65 °C, over 93% after a continuous illumination test for 650 h, and over 96% after nearly 1400 h of air storage. In contrast, the control device demonstrates poorer stability. In these results, it is suggested that selecting a dual‐functional additive is a promising approach to enhance efficiency and maintain stability in PSCs.

Enhanced Efficiency and Stability of Wide‐Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells Via Molecular Modification with Piperazinium Salt

AbstractWide‐bandgap (WBG) perovskite solar cell (PSC) plays a pivotal role as the top subcell in all‐perovskite tandem solar cells (TSCs), facilitating the absorption of high‐energy photons and affording a large open‐circuit voltage (VOC). Nonetheless, the stability and efficiency of WBG PSCs are constrained by light‐induced halide segregation and non‐radiative recombination losses. In this study, this work presents an approach of utilizing 2‐methylpiperazinium bromide (2‐MePBr) via interfacial engineering to realize high‐efficiency WBG (1.77 eV) PSCs. The C─NH─C functional group in 2‐MePBr, serving as an electron donor, can interact with under‐coordinated lead defects at the perovskite surface. Consequently, the treatment with 2‐MePBr mitigates interfacial non‐radiative recombination, enhances charge transport, inhibits ion migration, and thus delivers an improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 19.30% with a VOC of 1.29 V, and a fill factor of 83.08%. Notably, the WBG PSCs manifest enhanced stability, preserving 80% of the initial PCE after 337 h of continuous operation under 1 sun illumination at the maximum power point. Furthermore, the all‐perovskite TSCs based on this WBG subcell achieve a PCE of 27.47%, showing its promising application in perovskite‐based tandem solar cells.

Active Passivation of Anion Vacancies in Antimony Selenide Film for Efficient Solar Cells.

Binary antimony selenide (Sb2Se3) is a promising inorganic light-harvesting material with high stability, nontoxicity, and wide light harvesting capability. In this photovoltaic material, it has been recognized that deep energy level defects with large carrier capture cross section, such as VSe (selenium vacancy), lead to serious open-circuit voltage (VOC) deficit and in turn limit the achievable power conversion efficiency (PCE) of Sb2Se3 solar cells. Understanding the nature of deep-level defects and establishing effective method to eliminate the defects are vital to improving VOC. In this study, a novel directed defect passivation strategy is proposed to suppress the formation of VSe and maintain the composition and morphology of Sb2Se3 film. In particular, through systematic study on the evolution of defect properties, the pathway of defect passivation reaction is revealed. Owing to the inhibition of defect-assisted recombination, the VOC increases, resulting in an improvement of PCE from 7.69% to 8.90%, which is the highest efficiency of Sb2Se3 solar cells prepared by thermal evaporation method with superstrate device configuration. This study proposes a new understanding of the nature of deep-level defects and enlightens the fabrication of high quality Sb2Se3 thin film for solar cell applications.

Managing Interfacial Defects and Charge-Carriers Dynamics by a Cesium-Doped SnO2 for Air Stable Perovskite Solar Cells.

A high-quality nanostructured tin oxide (SnO2) has garnered massive attention as an electron transport layer (ETL) for efficient perovskite solar cells (PSCs). SnO2 is considered the most effective alternative to titanium oxide (TiO2) as ETL because of its low-temperature processing and promising optical and electrical characteristics. However, some essential modifications are still required to further improve the intrinsic characteristics of SnO2, such as mismatch band alignments, charge extraction, transportation, conductivity, and interfacial recombination losses. Herein, an inorganic-based cesium (Cs) dopant is used to modify the SnO2 ETL and to investigate the impact of Cs-dopant in curing interfacial defects, charge-carrier dynamics, and improving the optoelectronic characteristics of PSCs. The incorporation of Cs contents efficiently improves the perovskite film quality by enhancing the transparency, crystallinity, grain size, and light absorption and reduces the defect states and trap densities, resulting in an improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) of ≈22.1% with Cs:SnO2 ETL, in-contrast to pristine SnO2-based PSCs (20.23%). Moreover, the Cs-modified SnO2-based PSCs exhibit remarkable environmental stability in a relatively higher relative humidity environment (>65%) and without encapsulation. Therefore, this work suggests that Cs-doped SnO2 is a highly favorable electron extraction material for preparing highly efficient and air-stable planar PSCs.

Performance analysis of modified residential PV system configuration under mismatch conditions

Partial shading is a prevalent phenomenon with a substantial impact on PV system performance. Various techniques, such as maximum power tracking (MPPT), PV module interconnection, and power electronics-based schemes, have been employed to address these challenges at both the module level and the submodule level. Existing methods face limitations related to the cost of hardware and the complexity of control systems. These limitations hinder the widespread application of current solutions. Also, Module-level techniques though simple and economical provide limited granularity. The choice between these techniques involves a trade-off between complexity, cost, adaptability, and the specific characteristics of the PV system and its operating environment.This paper presents a new hybrid submodule-level partial shading mitigation scheme based on TCT interconnection and differential power processing. The proposed system, emphasizing its role in enhancing overall PV system performance offers a cost-effective, and easy-to-control solution. To compare and validate the performance of proposed hybrid architecture, a practically installed single-phase grid tied central inverter 3 kW residential PV system is considered. This practical PV system is modified to hybrid architecture and the performance parameters such as power generation, mismatch power loss, fill factor, power conversion efficiency and power improvement calculated for different operating conditions. The results show that the modified conventional PV system mitigate the mismatch issue effectively and improves the output performance for any operating condition

Enhanced Electron Transport and Mitigated Voltage Loss in Perovskite Photovoltaics Using Sb2O5@SnO2 Composite Electron Transport Layer.

The efficacy of electron transport layers (ETLs) is pivotal for optimizing the device performance of perovskite photovoltaic applications. However, colloidal dispersions of SnO2 are prone to aggregation and possess structural defects, such as terminal-hydroxyls (OHT) and oxygen vacancies (VOs), which can degrade the quality of ETLs, impede charge extraction and transport, and affect the nucleation and growth processes of the perovskite layer. In this study, the Sb(OH)4 - ions hydrolyzed from SbCl3 in colloidal dispersion can bind to defect sites and effectively stabilize the SnO2 nanocrystals are demonstrated. Upon oxidative annealing, a Sb2O5@SnO2 composite film is formed, in which the Sb2O5 not only mitigates the aforementioned defects but also broadens the energy range of unoccupied states through its dispersed conduction band. The increased electron affinity (EA) facilitates more efficient capture of photoexcited electrons from the perovskite layer, thus augmenting electron extraction and minimizing electron-hole recombination. As a result, a significant improvement in power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 22.60% to 24.54% is achieved, with an open circuit voltage (VOC) of up to 1.195V, along with excellent stability of unsealed devices under various conditions. This study provides valuable insights for the understanding and design of ETLs in perovskite photovoltaic applications.

Point-junction and alkali-assisted surface selenium diffusion: Unveiling a two-step method for enhancing the efficiency of VTD-SnS thin-film solar cells

Surface and interface engineering in thin-film solar cells (TFSCs) is vital for optimizing charge carrier dynamics, reducing recombination, enhancing material properties, and ultimately improving efficiency and overall performance. In this study, e-beam evaporation was used to deposit selenium (Se) onto tin sulfide (SnS) absorber layers with a thickness of 10 nm to 50 nm. The Se layer optimization was validated using various characterization techniques, which confirmed the formation of micro-sized openings via Se droplet deposition. This Se passivation-plus-local opening geometry plays a crucial role in forming point-junctions with the n-type CdS during cell fabrication, presenting a novel approach in state-of-the-art technology. The results revealed a significant enhancement in the conversion efficiency of the SLG/Mo/SnS/Se/CdS/i-ZnO/AZO/Al device to 3.01 % (VOC = 0.326 V, JSC = 20.21 mA cm−2, and FF = 0.45) with 30 nm Se layer deposition. Furthermore, a 30 nm-thick NaF-assisted Se layer was deposited to improve device performance. The diffusion of both Se and Na into the SnS substrate was validated using XRD, SEM, EDS, AFM, and XPS. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the SLG/Mo/SnSSe-NaF/CdS/i-ZnO/AZO/Al device was further enhanced to 3.70 % (VOC = 0.340 V, JSC = 22.56 mA cm−2, and FF = 0.48). This enhancement is attributed to the creation of localized junctions via Se surface passivation, and the concurrent SnSSe formation induces band gap tuning and increases the grain size, contributing to additional PCE improvement during Na-assisted Se diffusion.

Stable Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells with Efficiency over 23.0% via Dual-Layer SnO2 on Perovskite.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have shown great potential for reducing costs and improving power conversion efficiency (PCE). One effective method to achieve the latter is to use an all-inorganic charge transport layer (ICTL). However, traditional methods for crystallizing inorganic layers often result in the formation of a powder instead of a continuous film. To address this issue, we designed a dual-layer inorganic electron transport layer (IETL). This dual-layer structure consists of a layer of SnO2 nanocrystals (SnO2 NCs) deposited via a solution process and a dense SnO2 layer deposited through atomic layer deposition (ALD SnO2) to fill the cracks and gaps between the SnO2 NCs. PSCs having these dual-layer SnO2 ETLs achieved a high efficiency of 23.0%. This efficiency surpasses the recorded performance of ICTLs deposited on the perovskite. Furthermore, the PCE is comparable to that achieved with a C60 ETL. Moreover, the high-density structure of the ALD SnO2 layer inhibits the vertical migration of ions, resulting in improved thermal stability. After continuous heating at 85 °C in 10% humidity for 1000 h, the PCE of the dual-layer SnO2 structure decreased by 18%, whereas that of the C60/BCP structure decreased by 36%. The integration of dual-layer SnO2 into PSCs represents a significant advancement in achieving high-performance, commercially viable inverted monolithic PSCs or tandem solar cells.

Nickel-doped silver nanoclusters as a mechanism to capture photons

Narrow width of optical absorption of conducting polymers and photons energy losses have been the challenges for fabricating highly efficient thin-film organic solar cell. Nickel-doped silver nanoclusters (Ni/Ag NCs) are employed here to capture more photons using polymers blend solar absorber medium to improve solar cell performances. The poly-3-hexylthiophene and (6-6)phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester molecules blend were used a solar absorber layer in this investigation. The solar cells fabricated with NCs exhibited enhanced opt-electronic properties compared to the reference solar cell. Consequently, the experimental results suggest that the power conversion efficiency (PCE) has substantially increased with the incorporations of NCs in absorber layer, which is dependent on the concentrations of NCs in the medium. The maximum PCE achieved, in this work, is η\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\eta $$\\end{document} = 6.2% at 2% of NCs by weight, which has exhibited to the lowest energy losses compared to other doping levels. This improvement in PCE is attributed to the occurrence of local surface plasmon resonance effect due to the inclusion of Ni/Ag NCs in polymer matrix. The results provide valuable insights on the use of Ni/Ag NCs for efficient photons capture in thin-film polymers blend medium.

Modulating Secondary Growth of Perovskite Grains through Residual Solvent Evaporation

Modulating Secondary Growth of Perovskite Grains through Residual Solvent Evaporation

Recent Advances in Self-Assembled Molecular Application in Solar Cells.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted much attention due to their low cost, high efficiency, and solution processability. With the development of various materials in perovskite solar cells, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have rapidly become an important factor in improving power conversion efficiency (PCE) due to their unique physical and chemical properties and better energy level matching. In this topical review, we introduced important categories of self-assembled molecules, energy level modulation strategies, and various characteristics of self-assembled molecules. In addition, we focused on reviewing the application of self-assembled molecules in solar cells, and explained the changes that self-assembled molecules bring to PSCs by introducing the mechanism and effect of self-assembled molecules. Finally, we also elaborated on the challenges currently faced by self-assembled molecules and provided prospects for their applications in other optoelectronic devices.

Design highly effective B or N doped mesoporous carbon fibers catalysts for I3-/I- redox couple regeneration in carbon-based dye-sensitized solar cells

Construction of mesoporous structure and improving the conductivity of carbon counter electrode are feasible paths to enhance the catalytic activity in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) toward the I3-/I- redox couple regenerating (IRR). Herein, mesoporous carbon fiber (PCf) has been first synthesized and the DSCs using PCf counter electrode results in a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 7.12%, significantly surpassing the PCE of 6.01% generated by the DSCs with carbon fiber (Cf) counter electrode without mesoporous structure. Additionally, doping with heteroatoms B or N can further enhance the catalytic performance of PCf. Consequently, B or N doped Cf (BPCf or NPCf) counter electrode-based DSCs achieve high PCE values of 8.43% and 7.96%, respectively, demonstrating PCE improvements of 40.3% and 32.4%. This enhancement in catalytic activity for IRR in DSCs can be first attributed to the increased specific surface area of Cf which can provide more catalytic activated sites. Meanwhile, the enhanced conductivity of PCf by heteroatoms B or N doping is also an important factor for the improved catalytic activity. This work is expected to provide potential path to enhanced the catalytic activity of carbon counter electrode in DSCs toward IRR.

Dual Defect Passivation at the Buried Interface for Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells with Reduced Open-Circuit Voltage Loss.

Numerous defects exist at the buried interface between the perovskite and adjacent electron transport layers in perovskite solar cells, resulting in severe non-radiative recombination and excessive open-circuit voltage (VOC) loss. Herein, a dual defect passivation strategy utilizing guanidine sulfate (GUA2SO4) as an interface modifier is first reported. On the one hand, the SO4 2- preferentially interacts with Pb-related defects, generating water-insoluble lead oxysalts complexes. Additionally, GUA+ diffuses into the perovskite and induces the formation of low-dimensional perovskite. These reactions effectively suppress trap states at the buried interface and perovskite boundaries in printable mesoscopic perovskite solar cells (p-MPSCs), thus increasing the carrier lifetime. Meanwhile, GUA2SO4 optimizes the interface energy band alignment, thus accelerating the charge extraction and transfer at the buried interface. This synergistic effect of trap passivation and interface energy band alignment modulation is strongly demonstrated by an increase in average VOC of 70mV and the power conversion efficiency improvement from 17.51% to 18.70%. This work provides a novel approach to efficiently improve the performance of p-MPSCs through dual-targeted defect passivation at the buried interface.

Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 solar cells with over 10% power conversion efficiency enabled by dual passivation strategy

Interfaces quality have always been considered the key factors in the fabrication of efficient Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) solar cells, and harmful defects at the interface can significantly reduce the performance of the device. Here, we propose a dual passivation strategy by adding Na to the surface of the absorber layer (CZTSSe) to passivate the CZTSSe/CdS interface and treating the buffer layer (CdS) using ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to passivate the CdS/ZnO interface. Due to the Na doping passivation, the absorber surface conductivity increases while the roughness decreases and detrimental defects that can lead to nonradiative recombination are reduced. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the cell is improved by about 1 percentage point by Na passivation. The contributions of open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current density (Jsc), and fill factor (FF) to the improvement of PCE have been quantified as 50.64%, −5.58%, and 54.94%, indicating that Na doping can significantly boost Voc and FF. UV-ozone passivation reduces residual carbon organics in the CdS buffer layer, weakens carrier recombination, allows for more light absorption, and widens the depletion region, which favors efficient carrier collection. The estimated contribution of Voc, Jsc, and FF to the PCE of the device is 8.78%, 119.59%, and −28.37%, respectively, demonstrating that UV-ozone passivation can significantly improve the Jsc of the device. The two passivation strategies complement each other's advantages and achieve a synergistic effect. Our prepared champion device exhibits a PCE of 10.69% and remarkable long-term stability.

Efficient and Stable CuSCN-based Perovskite Solar Cells Achieved by Interfacial Engineering with Amidinothiourea.

Cuprous thiocyanate (CuSCN) emerges as a prime candidate among inorganic hole-transport materials, particularly suitable for the fabrication of perovskite solar cells. Nonetheless, there is an Ohmic contact degradation between the perovskite and CuSCN layers. This is induced by polar solvents and undesired purities, which reduce device efficiency and operational stability. In this work, we introduce amidinothiourea (ASU) as an intermediate layer between perovskites and CuSCN to overcome the above obstacles. The characterization results confirm that ASU-modified perovskites have eliminated trap-induced defects by strong chemical bonding between -NH- and C═S from ASU and under-coordinated ions in perovskites. The interfacial engineering based on the ASU also reduces the potential barrier between the perovskite and CuSCN layers. The ASU-treated perovskite solar cells (PSC) with a gold electrode obtains an improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 16.36 to 18.03%. Furthermore, after being stored for 1800 h in ambient air (relative humidity (RH) = 45%), the related device without encapsulation maintains over 90% of its initial efficiency. The further combination of ASU and carbon-tape electrodes demonstrates its potential to fabricate low-cost but stable carbon-based PSCs. This work finds a universal approach for the fabrication of efficient and stable PSCs with different device structures.

Brominated Quaternary Ammonium Salt-Assisted Hybrid Electron Transport Layer for High-Performance Conventional Organic Solar Cells.

Interlayer engineering is crucial for achieving efficient and stable organic solar cells (OSCs). Herein, by introducing a commercialized brominated quaternary ammonium salt, hexamethonium bromide (HB), into a perylene diimide (PDI)-structured electron transport layer (ETL), a PDINN:HB hybrid ETL with enhanced charge collection ability and environmental/operational stability is realized. Molecular dynamics simulations and Kelvin probe force microscopy indicate that strong polar bromine and amine groups can form extra interfacial dipoles in the hybrid interlayer, while X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance suggest the hybrid ETL can interact with the Ag cathode, thereby regulating the energy level arrangement at the interface. As for the results, the PDINN:HB hybrid ETL enables improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 17.8 to 18.4% and 18.8 to 19.4% in PM6:C5-16 bulk heterojunction- and PM6/L8-BO pseudobulk heterojunction-based OSCs, respectively. The versatility of this method is further verified by introducing a range of brominated quaternary ammonium salts into PDINN, in which a superior PCE and stability are all obtained compared to the reference device.