Impostor Feelings Research Articles

Impostor phenomenon short scale (IPSS-3): a novel measure to capture impostor feelings in large-scale and longitudinal surveys

The Imposter Phenomenon (IP) is gaining increasing attention in academia, not only as an overall attractive research topic but also as a concern that especially affects members of minority groups. Nevertheless, there is little evidence for the occurrence and socio-structural correlates of the IP. Against the backdrop of a pressing need to contextualize the IP, this paper provides (1) an overview of the existing empirical evidence on the IP from a perspective that incorporates the role of social contexts, (2) highlights shortcomings in both existing theoretical approaches and methodological tools, (3) introduces the Impostor Phenomenon Short Scale (IPSS-3) as a novel, time-efficient and universally applicable IP measure, and (4) underscores that the IP, in fact, does not occur in a social vacuum but is closely intertwined with socio-structural characteristics. To this end, the paper draws on three distinct data sets gathered among German adolescents and adults for the development of the IPSS-3 (Study 1: n = 271), its validation (Study 2: n = 427), and to assess the IP’s socio-structural correlates (Study 3: n = 865). The findings demonstrate that the IPSS-3 represents the first time-efficient and universally applicable instrument suitable for capturing the IP in large-scale and longitudinal research designs, e.g., initiated in adolescence. Thus, the IPSS-3 can address key open questions related to age effects, the role of transitions in the life course, and systematic variations in IP intensity among different social groups.

Workplace Impostor Thoughts, Impostor Feelings, and Impostorism: An Integrative, Multidisciplinary Review of Research on the Impostor Phenomenon

Workplace Impostor Thoughts, Impostor Feelings, and Impostorism: An Integrative, Multidisciplinary Review of Research on the Impostor Phenomenon

The Relation Between Impostorism and Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking in Undergraduate Students

Navigating academia poses significant challenges for undergraduate students, particularly in the transition from secondary education, where self-regulation and help-seeking are crucial. This study investigates the relationship between feelings of impostorism and attitudes toward help-seeking among undergraduate students. Previous research highlights that while help-seeking can enhance learning and professional development, students may avoid it due to fear of perceived incompetence or burdening others. The impostor phenomenon, characterized by doubts about one’s competence, further complicates this dynamic, with higher impostor feelings correlating with greater reluctance to seek help. This study involved 336 undergraduate students, who completed measures on help-seeking attitudes and feelings of impostorism; data was collected between Fall 2021 and Fall 2023. Results indicated that higher impostor feelings were associated with expectations of undesirable outcomes from help-seeking, though they did not devalue its potential benefits. The findings suggest that students experiencing impostor syndrome might avoid help-seeking as a self-protective measure, potentially hindering their academic progress. Educators can mitigate this by reframing help-seeking as positive academic behavior and fostering environments that encourage anonymous help-seeking. Future research should explore these dynamics in diverse student populations and examine help-seeking behaviors to enhance the generalizability and practical application of these findings.

Investigating feelings of imposterism in first-year medical student narratives.

Imposter phenomenon (IP), feeling as if a person does not belong, has been reported in medical students at various rates. In medical literature, this phenomenon has often been defined as a 'syndrome', but other studies have described it as a dynamic experience that can have various impacts on different people at different time points. Although studies have linked IP with other phenomena such as burnout in residents and physicians, no studies have examined its aetiology nor how these feelings are experienced by medical students. With the use of social identity theory as a framework, the authors analysed 233 reflective essays for elements of IP across eight cohorts of medical students from two institutions. Students responded to a prompt that asked: 'What was one part of your identity that you thought you would have to change in order to become a physician?' Included reflections were analysed using the framework method. Elements of IP were identified in 121 reflections (52%) and were categorised into three major themes: (1) Comparing oneself to an idealised image of a medical student, (2) Comparing oneself to an idealised image of a physician and (3) Concerns about presentation of self to others. Each theme contained two or more sub-themes. Commonly, students discussed how their own personality traits, experiences, backgrounds and identities cast doubt on their sense of belonging in medicine. The results of this study were consistent across both institutions, suggesting that imposter feelings are common among all first-year medical students. However, the extent of the impact of these feelings on their identity formation depends on the individual lived experiences of students and the context in which these feelings arise. Encouraging reflective journaling and sharing of stories from all stages of education can normalise imposter feelings during the development of the professional identity as a physician.

Imposter phenomenon and depression on a global level: exploring professional identity formation in health professional students

Background and relevance: The imposter phenomenon (IP) is characterized by high achieving individuals experiencing “chronic feelings of self-doubt, the fear of being discovered as an intellectual fraud, and a perception of being less intelligent or competent than peers.”1 Limited data exist on how feelings of imposter syndrome may affect aspects of one’s mental health. In the current climate of healthcare worker burnout, it is important to consider factors that may predispose individuals pursuing a career in healthcare to mental and emotional disengagement to assist in amelioration. This study aims to investigate the association between the occurrence of the imposter phenomenon and the frequency of depressed mood among students of the health professions on a global scale. Design and Methods: Student members of The Network: Towards Unity for Health responded to the Clance IP Scale and the PHQ-2 questionnaire. The analysis correlates indicators of (1) Region of study; (2) Area of study; (3) Year of study; (4) Preclinical vs. clinical stage of training; (5) Imposter Scale Score; and (6) Depression Score. We used Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests and linear regression to assess statistical significance. Results: More than three-quarters (89%) of respondents hadIP scores indicating moderate imposter feelings. A total of 68% of respondents had a PHQ-2 score indicating higher frequency of depressed mood. We found a significantly positive association between IP and depression scores. Conclusion: It is important to consider imposter syndrome as a potential risk factor for psychological distress among students in healthcare. Early identification is necessary as the presence of IP was shown to have a significantly positive relationship with the frequency of depressed mood. Familiarizing institutions with this relationship allows for early intervention.

Context-Dependent Social Comparison and Imposter Phenomenon: An Experimental Vignette Approach

Recent research into imposter phenomenon, or internal feelings of questioning competence, has shifted away from conceptualizing the feeling as an individual characteristic that requires an individual solution toward instead examining the role of context. We used a 2 (Generational Status: First Generation vs. Continuing Generation) × 3 (Environment: Classroom vs. Peer vs. Administration) × 2 (Social Comparison: Present vs. Absent) experimental vignette design. Overall, we found that, for both first- and continuing-generation students, social comparison messages differentially impacted imposter feelings depending on context, with the most elevated levels in social comparison messages from administrators and peers. Findings contribute to a better understanding of structural conditions that exacerbate or lessen imposter feelings at highly selective post-secondary institutions.

Breaking the Cycle: A Qualitative Study of Factors That Mitigate Impostor Phenomenon Among Internal Medicine Residents.

Background Impostor phenomenon (IP) describes feelings of inadequacy often experienced by individuals struggling to internalize success despite evidence to the contrary. IP is common in medicine and can be experienced as a cycle following exposure to an achievement-focused task, leading to fear of being found out as an impostor. Prior research describes IP characteristics, yet few studies have identified factors that mitigate IP among medical residents. Objective To understand factors that moderate IP among internal medicine (IM) residents. Methods We conducted a qualitative study using one-on-one semistructured interviews with 28 IM residents at a single academic health center from May to June 2020. To ascertain the prevalence of IP, informants completed a 20-item Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) questionnaire. Using a constructivist thematic approach investigators independently coded transcripts to identify factors mitigating IP. Results Twenty-eight of 53 (53%) eligible residents participated in the study. Most informants were female (21 of 28, 75%) and in their second postgraduate year of training (12 of 28, 43%). The mean CIPS score was 63. When faced with an achievement-focused task, informants describe feelings of inadequacy, avoidance behaviors, distortion of feedback, and attribution beliefs. Internal factors found to moderate IP include (1) reframing attribution beliefs; (2) accepting feedback; and (3) acknowledging strengths. External factors include (1) mentors, coaches, and role models; (2) formal opportunities to share IP experiences; and (3) growth-oriented learning environments. Conclusions This qualitative study describes internal and external factors that potentially mitigate impostor feelings, thereby interrupting the cyclical nature of IP among IM residents.

Family Attitude toward Achievement as Predictor of Impostor Phenomenon among students: Role of Narcissism

Background. Impostor is a motivational phenomenon for people who succeed, one’s view other factors attribute to their success such as luck (Feenstra et al., 2020). The present study is to investigate the relationship among family attitude towards achievement, impostor phenomenon and moderating role of narcissism. Method. A correlation research design was used in present study. Through convenience sampling data was collected from 400 students (Male = 200 and Female = 200). Clance impostor phenomenon scale (Clance, 1987), Mixed Message about Achievement scale (Thompson & Dinnel, 2001) and Narcissism (subscale of short dark triad scale) (Jones & Paulhusin, 2014) were used. A correlation research design was used in present study. Results. Result indicated that mixed message from family and family achievement values have positive relationship with impostor phenomenon and narcissism. On other hand, mixed message from family, family achievement values and narcissism positively predict impostor. Further results indicated narcissism not moderate between mixed message from family, family achievement values and impostor phenomenon. Conclusion. Finding indicates family attitude toward achievement more prone to develop impostor feelings and narcissism personality. Hence, in present age there is dire need to create awareness about the importance of family attitude related to achievement and impostor phenomenon. This research is also beneficial in clinical and academic setting to do further research and develop psychotherapy. Keywords. Family attitude toward achievements, narcissism, impostor phenomenon

Torture and blessing: the impostor phenomenon among Spanish female executives

PurposeThis research explores the impostor phenomenon (IP) within the context of gender and leadership, aiming to transform impostor feelings into catalysts for leadership empowerment and positive career outcomes.Design/methodology/approachUtilizing grounded theory, this study conducts in-depth interviews with 34 female Spanish senior executives to analyze their experiences with IP.FindingsThe research reveals that top executive women are not only affected by IP but can also harness it to foster personal and professional growth. It identifies key strategies – such as self-reflection, effective communication and cultivating positive habits – that enable women to transform IP into a lever for enhancing their careers. This approach leads to a proposed virtuous cycle model that empowers women to overcome the negative impacts of IP and advance their leadership capabilities.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the literature on gender and leadership by offering insights into the gendered nuances of IP. By framing IP as a potential catalyst for growth rather than a barrier, the study provides practical tools for human resource (HR) departments to promote gender diversity at senior levels. It also advocates for HR practices to dismantle internal barriers to women’s career progression and address conscious and unconscious gender biases.

Impostor Phenomenon and Impact on Women Surgeons: A Canadian Cross-Sectional Survey.

This project aims to characterize the extent and nature of impostor phenomenon (IP) among women surgeons in Canada. IP is well documented among medical professionals and trainees. It is known to have significant impacts on mental health and career trajectory. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of self-identifying women who have completed a surgical residency and currently or most recently practiced in Canada. Among 387 respondents, 98.7% have experienced IP. Median IP score corresponded to frequent impostor feelings or high impostorism. Self-doubt affects most women surgeons for the first time during training. It tends to be most intense in the first 5 years of practice and lessens over time. One hundred twelve (31.5%) surgeons experience self-doubt in the operating room (OR). Due to self-doubt, 110 (28.4%) respondents preferred to work with a more experienced assistant in the OR, whereas 40 (10.4%) stated that they would only operate with an experienced assistant. Few surgeons take on less OR time due to self-doubt (29 [7.5%]), but 60 (16.5%) take on fewer complex cases due to self-doubt. A small but important number of surgeons (11 [2.8%]) had given up operating altogether due to self-doubt. Due to feelings of self-doubt, 107 (21.4%) respondents were hesitant to take on a leadership role in the workplace. IP is a nearly universal experience among women surgeons and is influential in their professional lives. This study contributes to scientific knowledge that can advance gender equity in medicine and leadership.

Prevalence of imposter phenomenon and its correlates among undergraduate medical students of a government medical college, West Bengal, India

Background: The prevalence of imposter phenomenon (IP) is more among students, engineers, health-care-professionals, and researchers. Medical students are particularly predisposed to IP due to stressors like a highly competitive environment both preceding and during medical education. Aims and Objectives: The aims and objectives of the study are to find out the prevalence of IP among undergraduate medical students of a Medical College of Eastern India and to elicit the relationship between background factors and IP. Materials and Methods: One hundred and thirty medical students were selected by stratified random sampling from all four semesters. Twenty point Clance IP scale was used to measure IP. It contains 20 questions, each of them having five options. A score between “60 and 80” indicates frequent imposter syndrome and a score higher than 80 indicates intense imposter feeling. After conducting descriptive analysis, ordinal logistic regression was conducted. Results: Among the study subjects 37.7% had frequent imposter feelings and 10.8% had intense imposter feelings. High level of IP (frequent and intense combined) is more common among second-semester students, females, middle class, those who sleep >56 h/week, who perceived their school performance was good, who have a family history of psychiatric illness, and who take some kind of chronic medication. As per Ordinal regression, second-semester, middle class, good school performance, and history of chronic medication were found to be significant predictors of higher degree IP. Conclusion: The prevalence of IP is alarming among medical students and it is high time to address this before it turns into graver psychiatric morbidity.

Relationships between music performance anxiety and impostor phenomenon responses of graduate music performance students

The purpose of this study was to explore potential relationships between music performance anxiety (MPA) and feelings associated with the impostor phenomenon (IP). Participants completed an online questionnaire comprising demographic questions and two instruments: the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (KMPAI) and an adapted version of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS-P). Although MPA has been found to affect performers of many ages and levels, IP is associated with individuals who are considered successful. Thus, we chose graduate students pursuing music performance degrees at colleges and universities in the United States and Canada to serve as the participants-individuals who have attained success in music performance. Findings from the 171 participants reveal a strong positive correlation between higher levels of MPA and higher frequency of impostor feelings. Responses indicated that over 75% of participants experienced clinically high levels of MPA and frequent to intense impostor feelings. When asked to comment on their experiences related to the pandemic, some of the performers discussed finding little fulfillment performing without an audience present, others described virtual performances as being less stressful than live, and there was concern that the long period without in-person performances may result in a set-back in dealing with performance anxiety.

Burnout and Impostor Phenomenon Among Undergraduate Music Education Majors

The purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which impostor feelings and selected demographic variables predict burnout among undergraduate music education majors. Participants ( N = 143) completed the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Students. Overall, participants reported relatively high levels of impostor feelings and burnout. Results of multiple regression analyses revealed that CIPS score and year in school significantly predicted exhaustion and cynicism. Participants with higher CIPS scores (more frequent impostor feelings) and more years in school experienced greater exhaustion and cynicism. Descriptive analyses indicated that upper-division and band students experienced more cynicism than lower-division and choral/string/general music education majors, respectively. CIPS score was the only variable that significantly predicted professional efficacy. Participants with lower CIPS scores rated themselves higher in professional efficacy.

Women Leaders: Overcoming Impostor Syndrome in Higher Education in Kazakhstan

While impostor syndrome has attracted considerable scholarly interest in the Global North, in the context of Kazakhstan, it was mainly discussed on popular social outlets. This paper explores whether female leaders in higher education in Kazakhstan have experienced impostor feelings and if so, how -if at all- they overcame it. To explore it, a narrative approach was used to interview ten female leaders working in universities of Kazakhstan. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore the participants’ experience. This first study on Imposter Syndrome in Kazakhstan shows that almost all women leaders face these problems. Based on their experience of impostor syndrome, the participants provided recommendations to help cope with it.

Impostor feelings and academic decision making: an anchoring vignette approach

ABSTRACT The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) refers to the psychological experience of individuals mistakenly perceiving themselves as incompetent, despite external evidence of their success. Research has highlighted the prevalence of impostor feelings within academic settings, particularly among women. To better understand the gender gap in academia, our research questions explore the role of IP, gender, and support systems as potential predictors of students' decisions to study further, using a South African university student sample. Anchoring vignettes are used to improve the comparability across survey responses. Consistent with previous research, our findings confirm that women report higher levels of impostor feelings compared to men. Moreover, we observe a significant negative association between impostor feelings and the likelihood of students pursuing further studies. Interestingly, men with intense IP levels are more likely to opt out of studying further compared to women with intense impostor feelings. Additionally, individuals with mentors in their field of study are more likely to study further relative to those without mentors. These findings are reinforced when participants advise whether fictional characters in hypothetical situations should study further: characters experiencing high levels of impostor feelings are more frequently advised against studying further.

Behavioral and psychosocial factors related to mental distress among medical students.

Physicians die by suicide at rates higher than the general population, with the increased risk beginning in medical school. To better understand why, this study examined the prevalence of mental distress (e.g., depressive symptoms and suicide risk) and behavioral and psychosocial risk factors for distress, as well as the associations between mental distress and risk factors among a sample of medical students in a pre-COVID-19-era. Students enrolled in a large California medical school in 2018-2019 (N = 134; 52% female) completed questionnaires assessing sociodemographic characteristics, depression and suicide family history, health behaviors, and psychosocial wellbeing. Assessment scores indexing mental distress (e.g., depressive symptoms, thoughts of suicide in the past 12 months, suicide risk, and history of suicidality) and risk factors (e.g., stress, subjective sleep quality, alcohol use, impostor feelings, and bill payment difficulty) were compared across biological sex using chi-squared tests, and associations between mental distress and risk factors were determined through logistic regression. Elevated mental distress indicators were observed relative to the general public (e.g., 16% positive depression screen, 17% thought about suicide in previous 12 months, 10% positive suicide risk screen, and 34% history of suicidality), as well as elevated risk factors [e.g., 55% moderate or high stress, 95% at least moderate impostor feelings, 59% poor sleep quality, 50% screened positive for hazardous drinking (more likely in females), and 25% difficulty paying bills]. A positive depression screen was associated with higher stress, higher impostor feelings, poorer sleep quality, and difficulty paying bills. Suicidal ideation in the previous 12 months, suicide risk, and a history of suicidality were independently associated with higher levels of impostor feelings. Higher scores on assessments of depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts and behaviors were related to several individual-level and potentially modifiable risk factors (e.g., stress, impostor feelings, sleep quality, and bill payment difficulties). Future research is needed to inform customized screening and resources for the wellbeing of the medical community. However, it is likely that the modification of individual-level risk factors is limited by the larger medical culture and systems, suggesting that successful interventions mitigate suicide risk for medical providers need to address multiple socio-ecological levels.

Can top managers' impostor feelings affect performance?

PurposeBuilding on the premise that top managers' characteristics affect firm outcomes, the study aims to examine whether the impostor feelings of top managers are associated with firm performance.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses survey and regression estimation.FindingsThe results show that there is no strong association between the impostor phenomenon and firm performance, when considering the overall sample. However, in the case of women who experience strong impostor feelings, performance is negatively affected. There is no evidence that being a CEO or workload are mechanisms that explain this result.Practical implicationsImproving the understanding of whether top manager impostor feelings sabotage or improve firm performance can encourage managers to engage in preventive actions to overcome or explore its effects adequately so that positive firm outcomes are fostered.Originality/valueDespite the economic importance of how top managers' judgment affects their decisions, little is known about how the cognitive frames of their top managers affect firm outcomes. In particular, there is no clear understanding of how top managers' feelings of inadequacy, intellectual phoniness and deceitfulness (the impostor phenomenon) affect firm profitability.

The impostor phenomenon in post‐secondary students: A review of the literature

AbstractThe impostor phenomenon (IP) is characterised by a belief that one is not actually intelligent or accomplished, despite objective evidence of success, but rather has fooled others and is therefore vulnerable to discovery as a fraud. Impostor feelings are widespread in the post‐secondary population and may be disproportionately experienced by groups already marginalised within academia (e.g., women, racialised students). The IP may be associated with significant mental health issues and changes long‐term education and career plans; as such, it is imperative that administrators take steps to address impostorism on university and college campuses. The purpose of this review was to summarise factors of the IP from existing research on the experiences and background characteristics of undergraduate, graduate and professional students (i.e., medicine, law). Findings on the subject of IP and gender as well as IP and ethnicity were inconsistent. Most studies found that IP was negatively related to self‐esteem and various dimensions of mental health. The relationship of IP to grade point average was inconsistent but several studies showed a negative association between IP and measures of academic performance. These findings suggest there is a critical need to bring awareness to and address experiences of the IP in the academic community; implications for campus mental health professionals are explored. Limitations of existing research are addressed and directions for future research are discussed. Context and implicationsRationale for this studyTo offer a summary of findings related to experiences of the IP among students in higher education.Why the new findings matterIP is negatively associated with multiple mental health concerns, self‐esteem, and measures of academic performance; therefore, interventions are needed to better support students in their academic pursuits.Implications for higher education personnel (e.g., professors, administrators)Implications for mental health professionals and students are discussed. Recommendations for intervention include raising awareness and normalising feelings of IP through workshops and orientations, and resource development with a particular focus on practical strategies to support students in coping with feelings of IP. Earlier intervention to manage IP is needed to curb associated mental health issues and deleterious changes to long‐term education and career plans.

Impostor Phenomenon in Pharmacy Students as It Relates to Professional Identity Formation

This commentary describes the relationship between impostor phenomenon and professional identity formation and draws attention to validation theory in supporting student development. Student-level challenges are highlighted, and roles faculty members could play in actively encouraging professional identity formation and helping overcome impostor feelings are discussed.

Maternal and Paternal Authoritarian Parenting and Adolescents' Impostor Feelings: The Mediating Role of Parental Psychological Control and the Moderating Role of Child's Gender.

Recent systematic reviews about the impostor phenomenon unveil a severe shortage of research data on adolescents. The present study aimed at reducing this gap in the literature by investigating the association between maternal and paternal authoritarian parenting and impostor feelings among adolescents, while testing the mediating role played by parental psychological control and the moderating role of the child's gender in this context. Three hundred and eight adolescents took part in an online survey, in which they reported anonymously on their impostor feelings and their parents' parenting styles via several valid psychological questionnaires. The sample consisted of 143 boys and 165 girls, whose age ranged from 12 to 17 (M = 14.67, SD = 1.64). Of the sample's participants, over 35% reported frequent to intense impostor feelings, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys on this scale. In general, the maternal and paternal parenting variables explained 15.2% and 13.3% (respectively) of the variance in the adolescents' impostor scores. Parental psychological control fully mediated (for fathers) and partially mediated (for mothers) the association between parental authoritarian parenting and the adolescents' impostor feelings. The child's gender moderated solely the maternal direct effect of authoritarian parenting on impostor feelings (this association was significant for boys alone), but not the mediating effect via psychological control. The current study introduces a specific explanation for the possible mechanism describing the early emergence of impostor feelings in adolescents based on parenting styles and behaviors.