Implicit Followership Theories Research Articles

How employee voice influences supervisors’ performance ratings: The role of supervisors’ implicit followership theories

Research on employee voice has highlighted the potential consequences for individuals and organizations when speaking up to supervisors. Literature shows that employee voice influences employees’ performance ratings. Nevertheless, these findings are inconsistent, providing evidence for the influence of moderating effects on this relationship. This study contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between employee voice and supervisors’ performance rating by taking into consideration supervisors’ implicit followership theories. To test the moderation effect of supervisors’ implicit followership theories, this study uses an experimental design and a German sample of professional accountants ( n = 183). The results show that employee voice affects supervisors’ performance ratings positively and that this relationship is moderated by supervisors’ negative implicit followership theories. When supervisors have negative implicit followership theories they rate employees better in their performance. The study provides insights into supervisors’ responses to employee voice and the influence of implicit assumptions that supervisors have about followers.

Prototypical implicit followership theories, leader support, and follower organizational citizenship behavior

ABSTRACT How and when do leader prototypical implicit followership theories (IFTs) facilitate follower organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB)? In line with behavioural confirmation theory, we propose that leaders who have a higher level of prototypical IFTs provide their followers with more support, which subsequently facilitates follower OCB. Furthermore, we argue that leader prototypical IFTs shape both leader support and subsequent follower OCB not only independently but also in conjunction with follower prototypical IFTs. We collected survey data from 137 leader - follower dyads in China. Our preliminary results showed that the prototypical IFTs of leaders were positively related to leader support, which in turn was positively related to follower OCB; however, the sole predictive effect of leader prototypical IFTs became nonsignificant when leader-follower congruence in prototypical IFTs was included as a predictor. The results, which were obtained using polynomial regression and response surface analysis, showed that when leaders and followers held congruent prototypical IFTs, a high level of prototypical IFTs was related to higher levels of both leader support and follower OCB. Therefore, leaders’ IFTs, followers’ IFTs, and the congruence between these factors should all be taken into account in attempts to facilitate follower OCB.

Congruence in positive implicit followership theories, relational identification, and job performance: The moderating role of uncertainty avoidance

Abstract While previous research has identified the performance implications of leaders’ positive implicit followership theories (IFTs, i.e., personal expectations regarding followers’ positive characteristics), this study focuses on the effect of leader–follower congruence in positive IFTs on followers’ job performance. To test our predictions, we conducted two complementary studies. The results of Study 1 (an experiment, N = 200) show that leader–follower congruence (versus incongruence) in positive IFTs is positively related to followers’ relational identification with the leader, which, in turn, is positively related to followers’ job performance. Moreover, followers’ uncertainty avoidance strengthens this relationship. These findings were replicated in Study 2 (a three-wave survey, N = 223) through polynomial regression and response surface analysis. This study improves our understanding of IFTs by showing that leader–follower congruence in this domain is related to followers’ outcomes.

How do you see your role as a follower? A quantitative exploration of followers' role orientation.

How people see and define their role in different social settings has been of interest in psychological science for several decades. However, followers' role orientations, followers' beliefs about their role in the workplace, and how they execute their roles, have mostly been omitted in research so far. Nevertheless, followers' role orientations are important as they can affect (work-related) behavior. Therefore, this study quantitatively investigates the structure, heterogeneity, and consistency of followers' role orientations as well as the role orientations' link to work-related traits and behaviors. For this purpose, content and statistical analysis of an Implicit-Followership-Theory Scale and latent profile analyses were conducted with data from two points in time via a sample of German employees (t1: n = 211, t2: n = 69). The results indicate that a passive/active work attitude (Enthusiasm) plays the most prominent part in differences in followers' role orientation, followed by a positive/negative work ethic (Industry), and cooperativeness toward the leader (Good Citizen). Moreover, followers can be differentiated according to their role orientations into three distinct types: the Anti-Prototype, the Moderate Anti-Prototype, and the Moderate Prototype. Followers of the Moderate Prototype have the highest values in work-related traits and behaviors like conscientiousness and personal initiative. Followers' profile affiliation is stable for three-quarters of the sample over 4-6 weeks. Overall, these findings point to role orientation being a (performance-related) follower characteristic, making role orientations relevant for application processes, especially for positions with frequent leader-follower interactions. Lastly, results show a current conceptual inaccuracy. They indicate the need to differentiate more rigorously between role orientations and Implicit Followership Theories (IFT), although currently both are often used synonymously. Therefore, recommendations for alterations to the used Implicit Followership Theory scale for capturing followers' role orientations are given, including the elimination of items with situational character and changes in wording and factor structure.

The Support-Undermining Paradox of Follower Proactive Work Behaviors

This research proposes a support-undermining paradox regarding leaders’ responses to their followers’ proactive work behaviors, which depends on leader proactive implicit followership theories (proactive IFTs). According to follower categorization theory, followers displaying highly proactive work behaviors may be categorized as ideal followers and thus receive leader social support when their leaders hold high levels of proactive IFTs, but they may be categorized as non-ideal followers and thus be subject to leader social undermining when their leaders hold low levels of proactive IFTs. Moreover, we identify leaders’ perceived benefit and threat as two cognitive mechanisms and leaders’ liking and hostility as two affective mechanisms that account for the above relationships. In one survey study (N = 449 leader-follower dyads), our predictions are supported. When leaders’ proactive IFTs are high, followers’ proactive work behaviors elicit their leaders’ perceived benefit and liking, which in turn increase their leaders’ social support. However, when leaders’ proactive IFTs are low, followers’ proactive work behaviors elicit their leaders’ perceived threat and hostility, which in turn increase their leaders’ social undermining. This research advances our knowledge about when and why proactive followers are supported or undermined by their leaders, and practically, it inspires followers to engage in proactive work behaviors wisely.

The Curiositor’s Dilemma: Why Curious Employees are Perceived as Insubordinate and Unlikeable

The popular business press has portrayed workplace curiosity – defined as the need to seek information, knowledge, or learning in the workplace – as the most valuable characteristic employees can possess. Most research examining workplace curiosity has found that it is positively related to desirable employee outcomes; however, little is known about the potential dark sides of this well-intentioned, yet, risky workplace act. Further, past research suggests that well-intentioned risky follower acts can lead to unintended negative leader perceptions. In this paper, then, we utilize implicit followership theories to develop a theoretical model predicting a negative relationship between follower curiosity and leader ratings of follower likeability that is mediated by leader perceptions of follower insubordination. Across three independent organizational samples consisting of data from leader-follower dyads collected at three time points, we find support for this prediction. To examine a potential boundary condition, we find uniform support that this mediation model is moderated by follower political skill, such that the indirect effect of follower curiosity on follower likeability via perceptions of follower insubordination is stronger for followers with lower (rather than higher) political skill. This suggests that curious followers who also have strong political skills are more likely to avoid being viewed as insubordinate and, in turn, disliked by their leaders. These findings highlight the slippery slope that curious followers must negotiate to avoid leaders’ negative perceptions associated with workplace curiosity (i.e., Curiositor’s dilemma). Implications and future research directions are discussed.

Followership: a review of current and emerging research

PurposeOver time, the role of followers within leadership discourse has gained greater status, leading to followers being acknowledged as significant actors in the leadership process. This has led to the development of follower-centric leadership studies, as well as the more emergent research area of followership, with followership research having the specific intention to find out about followers from the perspective of followers. In this paper, the authors provide a review of role-based followership approaches, and implicit leadership and followership theories as a basis to build a case for follower implicit followership theories (FIFTs) as a focus area for future research.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conducted a review of seminal and current role-based followership literature, with a specific focus on FIFTs and followership studies conducted within the African context.FindingsImplicit theories have been an area of leadership research that has added much value, and as such could do the same for development of followership research. FIFTs as a research area are nascent and, as such, should continue to be explored in order to expand our understanding of followership.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, this is one of the first literature reviews to have a specific focus on FIFTs, as well as on followership research conducted within the African context.

More than Follow the Leader: Expectations, Behaviors, Stability, and Change in a Co-Created Leadership Process

This conceptual paper challenges assumptions about the primacy of leaders and leading over followers and following in the leadership process. Leadership cannot be holistically understood unless followership and leadership are researched as they are enacted—in tandem. To move toward a more complete understanding of leadership, we introduce a leadership system which involves a co-created leadership process, unfolds over time, and accounts for stability and change in partners’ expectations and behaviors. Drawing on role theory and implicit leadership (ILTs) and followership (IFTs) theories, we suggest how expectations of self and other influence leading and following behaviors and the leadership process. Personal learning acquired through the experience of leadership results in stability or change in one’s future expectations. Our framework explains how stability and change in each dyad partners’ leadership and followership expectations comes about through constructionist and constructivist mechanisms. These mechanisms occur across two timelines: The first is the microadjustments made to expectations and behaviors within a particular leadership occurrence. The second is the loop between personal learning and the expectations each member carries into future leadership occurrences and relationships. Practical implications arising from this new framework include considerations for leadership and followership development and a contribution to leadership forecasting.

The role of implicit theories in predicting creativity fostering teacher behavior: Gender as moderator

Classroom creativity represents a significant educational goal. Reaching this goal requires teachers to maintain an open attitude to creative ideas or behaviors, emphasize flexibility in behavior, and value critical intellectual and independent thinking. Since teachers play a crucial role in developing student creativity, we focused on predictors of teachers' willingness to foster creativity in a classroom. Drawing on implicit leadership and implicit followership theories, we examined how perceptions of ideal (effective) principals and ideal students predict teachers’ tendency to endorse creative behaviors in their classrooms, that is, creativity fostering teacher behavior (CFTB), and whether teacher gender moderates the relationship between implicit leadership theories (ILTs), implicit followership theories (IFTs), and CFTB. Four hundred sixty-one Israeli Arab teachers from 43 public schools completed an online questionnaire. Regression analysis showed their implicit beliefs predicted behaviors to foster student creativity. More specifically, teachers' perceptions of students and principals in terms of ideal prototypes were positively correlated with CFTB, and their perceptions of principals’ and students' anti-prototypes were negatively correlated. Further, the relationships between principal and student prototype perceptions and CFTB were stronger for female teachers. We discuss the findings’ implications for theory and practice.

Antecedents and consequences of leaders’ implicit followership theories

Drawing from recognition‐based categorization and self‐fulfilling prophecy theory, the present study investigates antecedents and consequences of leaders’ implicit followership theories (LIFTs). Using latent variable modelling, in a sample of 230 leader‐follower dyads, we support our hypotheses that follower personality and in‐role behaviour influence LIFTs which, in turn, affect follower effort and performance. Specifically, we found that general factor of personality (GFP), including agreeableness, conscientiousness, extroversion, intellect, and emotional stability, positively predicted positive LIFTs and negatively predicted negative LIFTs. Furthermore, personality had an indirect effect on positive and negative LIFTs via active engagement and independent thinking behaviours respectively. With respect to outcomes, positive LIFTs indirectly impacted follower performance via effort. Contrary to our predictions, negative LIFTs also indirectly impacted follower performance via effort, despite showing a negative direct relationship with performance. Our comprehensive model reveals new insights on LIFTs and highlights the importance of educating both leaders and followers about LIFTs.Practitioner points Managers should be cognizant of the follower traits and behaviours that influence their expectations of followers and be mindful of the potential harm done by negative expectations. Followers should be mindful of the way they engage with their leaders, especially when it comes to independent thinking behaviours which may be construed as rude or overly critical. Finally, organizations should encourage leaders and followers to discuss implicit expectations as this may resolve misinterpretations of behaviour and negative attributions of performance.

How Do Leaders vs. Followers Construct Followership? A Field Study of implicit followership theories and Work-Related Affect Using Latent Profile Analysis

In this study, we integrate follower categorization theory with affective events theory (AET) to investigate the extent to which within-person patterns of implicit followership theories (IFTs) and work-related affect predict job satisfaction for leaders versus followers. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to identify and to describe distinct profiles of IFTs and work-related affect for leaders versus followers. For the sample of 242 leaders, two profiles with distinct patterns of IFTs and work-related affect ( Proactive and Alienated) were found. Leaders with Proactive views of followers showed above-average ratings of work-related affect, while leaders with Alienated views of followers showed lower ratings of work-related affect. In the sample of 240 followers, there were four profiles of followers with distinct patterns of IFTs and work-related affect ( Conforming, Alienated, Proactive, and Negative). Despite showing a similar pattern of IFTs, followers with Alienated views of their own role showed below-average ratings of work-related affect, while followers with Negative views of their own role showed the highest ratings of work-related affect. These findings suggest that IFTs and work-related affect show unique within-person interaction for followers. Furthermore, for followers, profile membership of IFTs and work-related affect significantly predicted mean levels of job satisfaction. Implications are discussed.

Implicit followership theories and resistance to leaders’ unethical requests: the mediating role of organizational citizenship behavior

PurposeThis study aims to adopt a follower-centric approach in leadership and ethics research by investigating the impact of implicit followership theories (IFTs) on followers’ constructive resistance to leaders’ unethical requests. Specifically, it analyzes the mediating role of organizational citizenship behavior in the relationship between IFTs and constructive resistance. Indeed, this study aims to examine whether followers with more positive beliefs about the characteristics that a follower should have IFTs are more likely to resist unethical leadership and whether this relationship is mediated by organizational citizenship behavior as volunteering acts that exceed the formal job requirements.Design/methodology/approachThe proposed hypotheses were tested using survey data from 273 employees working in a steel manufacturer company in Iran. The variance-based structural equation modeling technique was used to analyze data.FindingsThe results show that followership antiprototype negatively affects both follower’s constructive resistance and organizational citizenship behavior. Furthermore, organizational citizenship behavior mediates the relationship between IFTs and follower’s constructive resistance. Also, both followership prototype and organizational citizenship behavior have a positive effect on follower’s constructive resistance.Originality/valueContrary to the dominant leader-centric approach in leadership and organizational ethics research, few studies have examined the role of followers and their characteristics. The results of this study provide important insights into the role of followers in resistance against the leader’s unethical request.

An Understanding of Implicit Followership Toward New Employees' Self-Efficacy: The Mediating Role of Perceived Supervisor Support.

Under turbulent, boundaryless, and Internet age, the characteristics of career sustainability development have shifted from the perspective of development within the organization to the career development track of self-efficacy. New employees usually face the difficult stage of adapting to the new environment and establishing interpersonal relationships with new colleagues. When new employees enter an organization, they usually have different implicit followership cognitions. Previous studies have focused on the treatment of new employees by the organization and the leader, however, the implicit followership cognitive state of new employees has not been studied specifically. This research integrates employees' positive and negative implicit followership, perceived supervisor support, workplace friendship, and perceived self-efficacy into a research framework. This study used a questionnaire survey by an online professional survey website. A total of 394 valid questionnaires were collected. Structural equation model (SEM) analysis was carried out and according to the results, new employees' positive and negative implicit followership significantly affects perceived supervisor support. Furthermore, perceived supervisor support had a significant impact on perceived self-efficacy. Moreover, perceived supervisor support was found in a mediating role between the relationship of implicit followership theories and perceived self-efficacy. Finally, workplace friendship was found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between perceived supervisor support and perceived self-efficacy. Based on the research results, business managers are suggested to pay more attention to new employees' self-cognition of their job roles and enhance the self-efficacy of new employees in the entry stage.

Careful What You Ask For: Competence and Efficacy in The Leader-Follower Relationship

We introduce the follower’ perspective to understand whether and how leader influence affects follower performance outcomes. Drawing on implicit leadership theories and implicit followership theories, we develop a theoretical model involving the mediated moderation of leader-member exchange (LMX) and follower self-efficacy on the relationship between follower’s sense of leader influence and performance outcomes (task performance, OCBI, and voice). Employing a multi-source multi-wave design, we collected a sample involving 184 leader-follower pairs from 83 groups. The results show support for the hypothesized model. Specifically, we found that leader-reported LMX mediated the relationship between follower’s sense of leader influence and performance outcomes. The impacts of follower’s sense of leader influence on performance outcomes were stronger at low than low high of follower self-efficacy.

The Power of Followers That do not Follow: Investigating the Effects of Follower Resistance, Leader Implicit Followership Theories and Leader Negative Affect on the Emergence of Destructive Leader Behavior

This study focuses on follower resistance as a potential antecedent of destructive leader behavior and examines leader-related moderators and mediators to help explain the relationship between follower resistance and destructive leader behavior. Drawing from implicit followership theories, we propose that the relationship between follower resistance and destructive leader behavior is moderated by leaders’ Theory X schema. Furthermore, we build on affective events theory to hypothesize that follower resistance increases destructive leader behavior via leaders’ negative affect. We tested our hypotheses in a within-subjects online field experiment. Our study findings demonstrate that follower resistance increases destructive leader behavior and that this relationship is mediated through leaders’ negative affect and moderated by leaders’ Theory X schema. We discuss theoretical implications regarding the impact of (resistant) follower behavior on destructive leadership and offer methodological advances in terms of research design and analytical approaches to deal with endogeneity issues and derive causal inferences. Lastly, we derive practical implications for utilizing follower resistance.

“Mommy and Me”: raising implicit followership theories

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the antecedents to implicit followership theories (IFTs) and make recommendations for developing positive IFTs. Female transformational parenting is highlighted, showing that although followership is typically associated with one’s role in an organization, its development is not relegated to that context. Accordingly, this paper encourages transformational-parenting training and features activities for current leader-training programs to enlighten trainees about their IFTs. Design/methodology/approach Through one online and one paper survey, participants self-defined “follower,” rated their female primary caregivers’ transformational leadership during adolescence, reported their IFTs and provided demographic information. Findings Qualitative and quantitative data analyses found that the degree to which female primary caregivers demonstrated transformational leadership related to children’s positive IFTs and positive definitions about followers in young adulthood. Research limitations/implications Future research should test female caregivers’ influence on IFTs at more advanced stages of one’s career, examine their influence over participants’ followership behavior and incorporate external ratings of leadership and followership. Practical implications Recommendations for embedding IFTs into transformational-leadership-training programs are provided, falling into the categories of feedback, reflection/introspection and mentoring/coaching. In the spirit of contemporary approaches to leadership, recommendations require trainees to recognize their biases/knowledge of followers and followership and use that knowledge to facilitate collaboration between leaders and followers. Originality/value Findings spotlight female leadership, an often-overlooked source of power in organizations, and go beyond leader/follower dichotomies by insisting on IFTs awareness and development for both parties.

Exploring the Bounds of Pygmalion Effects: Congruence of Implicit Followership Theories Drives and Binds Leader Performance Expectations and Follower Work Engagement

The topic of work engagement is moving up on the managerial agenda as it sets the stage for numerous beneficial outcomes for both organizations and their employees. It is clear, however, that not all employees are equally engaged in their job. The current study taps into theory on positive self-fulfilling prophecies induced by leaders’ high expectations of followers (i.e., the Pygmalion effect) and examines their potential to facilitate follower work engagement. By integrating literature on implicit followership theories with the Pygmalion model, we investigate the assumption that leaders’ high expectations are universally perceived as and therefore foster the same desirable results for all employees. We argue and find that the extent to which followers’ work engagement benefits from high leader expectations depends on their implicit followership theory of industry (IFTI; i.e., the general belief that employees are hardworking, productive, and willing to go above and beyond). We also find that when followers hold a high IFTI but feel that their leader does not convey high expectations, their engagement at work suffers. In addition, we examine whether leaders’ IFTI forms the origin of naturally occurring Pygmalion effects. Our results show that a positive IFTI among leaders is especially interpreted as high/positive expectations by followers who also hold a high/positive IFTI. Our study introduces boundary conditions to the Pygmalion-at-work model by revealing the interactive role of leaders’ and followers’ implicit followership theory of industry. We contribute to the advancement of cognitive, follower-centric perspectives on leadership and provide evidence for the importance of schema congruence.

Cultural variations in whether, why, how, and at what cost people are proactive: A followership perspective

The objective of this conceptual article is to illustrate how differences in societal culture may affect employees’ proactive work behaviors (PWBs) and to develop a research agenda to guide future research on cross-cultural differences in PWBs. We propose that the societal cultural dimensions of power distance, individualism–collectivism, future orientation, and uncertainty avoidance shape individuals’ implicit followership theories (IFTs). We discuss how these cross-cultural differences in individuals’ IFTs relate to differences in the mean-level of PWB individuals show ( whether), in the motivational states driving individuals’ PWBs ( why), in the way individuals’ enact PWBs ( how), and in the evaluation of PWBs by others ( at what cost). We recommend how future research can extend this theorizing and unpack the proposed cross-cultural differences in PWBs, for example, by exploring how culture and other contextual variables interact to affect PWBs.

RETRACTED ARTICLE: What are postgraduates like in the eyes of their supervisors?—The content, structure, and measurement of supervisors’ implicit followership theories

Supervisors and postgraduates exhibit a typical leader-follower relationship. This study carries out research in the field of higher education to explore the content and structure of supervisors’ implicit followership theories (IFTs), reveal the characteristics of followers with different levels of cognitive categories, and develop the scale for supervisors’ IFTs. In compliance with strict procedures, a total of 768 subjects are investigated through four rounds of questionnaires. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability and validity tests are carried out on the scale developed for analyzing supervisors’ IFTs. The results show that supervisors’ IFTs consist of three factors: good citizen, learning ability and learning attitude. The structure and content of the supervisors’ IFTs scale are different from those used in previous studies by researchers with different cultural backgrounds or in different fields. The scale for supervisors’ IFTs has good reliability and validity. It can be used for postgraduate training and in relevant follow-up research.

The Development of Implicit Followership Theories in Organizational Change Processes

Successful organizational change requires substantial efforts from both change leaders and followers. After a long tradition of focusing on change leadership, academics increasingly focus on the role of followership. However, understanding the diverse responses of followers in change processes is complex, as a clear understanding of the underlying mechanisms that trigger followers’ heterogeneous interpretations seems missing. Using a standardized process interview protocol, we content-analyzed 60 individual experience narrations of major organizational changes in eight different organizations and industries. These narrations appeared to map in six prototypical stories (i.e. the ‘Warrior Story’) that are proposed to explicate yet uncharted temporal pathways of change followership. We highlight several similarities and differences between those stories and interpret them as reflections of Implicit Followership Theories in change context. By adding to the understanding of interpretive processes grounded in mental schemas, this study could help leaders of change to anticipate their followers’ diverse responses to supposedly similar experiences.