Implications Of Land Use Change Research Articles

Impact of Land Use Changes on Soil Erodibility in the Outer Himalayas

Land use change hurts soil characteristics such as permeability, soil texture and aggregate stability, soil erodibility etc. which make soils susceptible to erosion and degradation. The outer Himalayan region is prone to large-scale soil erosion by water owing to the vast disparity in the slope gradient, undulating relief, largely mountainous joined with high-intensity rainfall and lithological characteristics of these rocks. Soil erodibility, one of the key factors affecting the rate of erosion can be estimated by using various soil erodibility indices. In examining erodibility indices across various land use changes, it was evident that both the clay ratio (CR) and modified clay ratio (MCR) escalated as land use shifts from forest to more disturbed environments. As we transit from forest to agriculture, these ratios increased and were even more marked in the transition from forest to wasteland. The erosional behaviour as per CR and MCR in agriculture land use transitions could be arranged in the order that forest < agriculture <builtup< wastelands. Among wasteland use transitions, the high CR and MCR indicated potential challenges in soil management, while the lower CR and MCR in transitions to agriculture and forest suggested more favourable soil conditions for these specific uses. The CR and MCR ratios indicated that the lower the ratio, the more would be the clay accumulation and lesser the erosion. This information is crucial for understanding the implications of land use changes on soil erosion and health and for guiding effective land management practices in diverse ecological settings.

Evaluating the spatiotemporal dynamics of ecosystem service values in response to land use/land cover change in Goang watershed, Northwest Ethiopia

Evaluating the impacts of land use/land cover (LULC) change on ecosystem service values (ESVs) is critical for understanding the implications of land use change on human well-being, identifying trade-offs and synergies between different ecosystem services, monitoring changes in ecosystem health, and informing decisions for land use planning and conservation efforts. As a result, this study aimed to examine the effects of these changes on ESVs during the last four decades (1984–2022) and predicted periods of 2040 and 2060 by utilizing a combination of geoinformation, and economic evaluation approaches. The modified ecosystem service value (ESV) coefficients were used to estimate the influence of LULC change on ESVs. The result revealed that overall ESV has declined from US$390 × 106 in 1984 to US$273.21 × 106 in 2060. However, the effects on various ecosystem services varied, with certain services, such as crop production, pollination, and biological control, increasing in value. These findings also emphasized the necessity of evaluating the implications of land use decisions on ecosystem services and it depicted that it may be possible to retain or improve certain services even in the face of overall declines in total ESVs. Subsequently, the findings of this study, therefore, give important insights for policymakers, land managers, and local people for devising appropriate land use policies and land use plans as well as realizing, and implementing sustainable land use practices that ensure the provision of essential ecosystem services for future generations.

Bioenergy feedstock supply from wheat straw: A farm level model incorporating trade‐offs in crop choices, disease risk, and soil fertility

AbstractSecond‐generation biofuel (e.g., ethanol, renewable diesel) can be made from crop residues. However, the availability of residues for biofuel production is uncertain, because farmers have the option to grow different crops and use the residues for alternative purposes, such as livestock bedding and feed, or leave them in the field to improve soil quality. Taking Canadian wheat straw supply as an example, we develop a dynamic programming model to investigate a farmer's wheat straw supply decision in response to different wheat straw and grain prices. Our model considers crop choices between wheat and canola in the context of disease risk, the trade‐off between the immediate payoffs a farmer may receive from bailing and selling wheat straw, and the long‐term adverse effects that removing wheat straw from the soil surface may have on wheat and canola yields. The results from this study provide insights into how farm‐level supply decisions, in response to wheat straw price changes, affect soil quality dynamics and scale up to regional wheat straw supply for biofuel production. This information also has implications for land use change and the sustainability of feedstock supply for biofuels.

Bird species richness and diversity responses to land use change in the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

The increasing demand for cultivated lands driven by human population growth, escalating consumption and activities, combined with the vast area of uncultivated land, highlight the pressing need to better understand the biodiversity conservation implications of land use change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Land use change alters natural wildlife habitats with fundamental consequences for biodiversity. Consequently, species richness and diversity typically decline as land use changes from natural to disturbed. We assess how richness and diversity of avian species, grouped into feeding guilds, responded to land use changes, primarily expansion of settlements and cultivation at three sites in the Lake Victoria Basin in western Kenya, following tsetse control interventions. Each site consisted of a matched pair of spatially adjacent natural/semi-natural and settled/cultivated landscapes. Significant changes occurred in bird species richness and diversity in the disturbed relative to the natural landscape. Disturbed areas had fewer guilds and all guilds in disturbed areas also occurred in natural areas. Guilds had significantly more species in natural than in disturbed areas. The insectivore/granivore and insectivore/wax feeder guilds occurred only in natural areas. Whilst species diversity was far lower, a few species of estrildid finches were more common in the disturbed landscapes and were often observed on the scrubby edges of modified habitats. In contrast, the natural and less disturbed wooded areas had relatively fewer estrildid species and were completely devoid of several other species. In aggregate, land use changes significantly reduced bird species richness and diversity on the disturbed landscapes regardless of their breeding range size or foraging style (migratory or non-migratory) and posed greater risks to non-migratory species. Accordingly, land use planning should integrate conservation principles that preserve salient habitat qualities required by different bird species, such as adequate patch size and habitat connectivity, conserve viable bird populations and restore degraded habitats to alleviate adverse impacts of land use change on avian species richness and diversity.

Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics and Implications for Landscape Restoration in Cameroon’s Western Highlands

Land use – the way human beings employ the land and its resources is at the centre of scientific and policy interests in rapidly evolving landscapes of sub-Saharan Africa. An example par excellence of such landscapes is the Western Highland Region of Cameroon. This paper analyses the implications of land use changes in seven communities of the Western Highland Region of Cameroon. In doing so, it specifically: (i) examines the pattern of land use/land cover change between 1984 and 2021, and (ii) analyses their environmental implications. A mixed-methods approach involving the use of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods was employed. This specifically involved the survey of 300 households using semi-structured questionnaires, the conduct of nine (9) group discussions and twenty-two (22) key informant interviews. Secondary data were obtained through Municipal Council Reports. The data were analysed descriptively (using tables and charts) and spatially using maps. The study used archived satellite images to map land use dynamics over the study area from 1970’s to present. In this light, NASA’s Landsat satellite images from USGS earth explorer was acquired for the periods of 1979, 1984, 2000, 2013 and 2021 for diachronic analysis of land cover/use in the study area. The results revealed that land use/land cover changes were rapid, involving a significant reduction in grassland (72%), forests (48%) and bare areas (19%) between 1984 and 2021. This was followed by a correspondent increase (211%) in the built-up area, and in agricultural space (22%). Additionally, land use/land cover changes have led to a change in local climatic conditions, a decline in crop and livestock output, and rising food costs. The study recommends that international NGOs operating in this area should engage with communities on aspects of sustainable land management. Relevant government ministerial departments and municipal agents should emphasise the need to respect land use plans, to limit the uncoordinated colonisation of slopes for farming and settlement. Besides establishing the pattern of land use transformation in this landscape, this paper provides new insights on the environmental effects of land use/land cover dynamics in Cameroon’s Western Highlands. The results demonstrate novelty through its further identification of food security issues linked to land use/land cover dynamics.

Environmental implications of land use change on the fate of Zn in agricultural soils: A case study of Puding karst soils, southwest China

Land use change threatens food security because it may cause the depletion and/or low bioavailability of micronutrients in agricultural soils. Therefore, it is significant to investigate the fate of micronutrients and predict the potential environmental problems. The zinc isotope technique is of particular interest in interpreting soil processes. In this study, Zn isotopic data of soil samples in five profiles based on different land uses were provided, and Zn behavior in different soils was discussed. The isotopic ratios of soil samples in the abandoned orchard, secondary forest, abandoned cropland, and cropland are similar, with the δ66Zn varying from 0.15 to 0.29‰. However, the samples in shrub grassland show a lower δ66Zn of 0–0.20‰, which may be affected by anthropogenic sources. For the vertical patterns, the non-cultivated long-rooted plants (i.e., abandoned orchard and secondary forest) show no significant difference in the distribution of δ66Zn, but the patterns of cropland and abandoned cropland samples are reversed. The cropland samples show positive correlations between δ66Zn and Fe2O3 (R2 = 0.90) and MnO (R2 = 0.75), indicating that Fe and Mn oxides preferentially adsorb heavy Zn isotopes on the mineral surfaces. The high affinity between Zn and oxides indicated that the concentration of bio-available Zn in cropland soils was getting lower. As a result, the supplies of micronutrients may be deficient and urged from fertilizer. This study provides a better understanding of Zn cycling in agricultural systems and gives improvements in soil management.

Incidence of Land use Change on Flooding and River Bank Erosion in Ngoketunjia Division, North West Region, Cameroon

Man in his unlimited quest for a good life through varied activities and land use changes have become an important geomorphic agent. Based on this assertion, this study was designed to examine the implications of land use changes on the incidence of flooding and river bank erosion in Ngoketunjia Division. The two-stage random sampling technique was used to administer questionnaires to 384 household heads who were predominantly farmers and occupants of flood prone areas. High resolution Landsat images of 1980 and 2016 were vectored, treated, and analysed in ArcGIS and used in conjunction with Google Earth images to delimit the bank line of a segment of the Noun River. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) and the Spearman Rank Correlation coefficient (rho) were used to test the hypothesis of the study at 95% confident level. A significant positive correlation was found between the incidence of flooding and agricultural land use as well as between the incidence of flooding and settlement. The coefficients of determination (R2) of both correlation analyses revealed that agricultural land use contributed 60% of variability in the incidence of flooding while settlement shared 39.6% in the variability of its rank. An association was also noticed between some land uses and river bank processes. Mass movement and bank undercutting were found to be most dominant in cultivated areas and least in woodland areas. Geospatial analysis further revealed that between 1980 and 2016, a surface area of 2763m2 was eroded by the Upper Noun River within the approximately 4.59Km long segment delimited for the study as the gallery forest and wetlands of the area gradually gave way to farmlands and settlements. This gives an annual bank erosion rate of 76.75m2 within the segment during the 36 years’ period. The study recommends effective structural approaches to river bank stabilization, deepening and straightening of river channels while checking excessive upland degradation to reduce accelerated surface and river bank erosion.

Contribution of ecosystem services to rural livelihoods in a changing landscape: A case study from the Eastern Himalaya

Ecosystem services (ES), or tangible and intangible goods and services from nature, are an integral part of the rural economy in Nepal. However, there is limited recognition of their contribution to human wellbeing. To understand the linkages between local people and ES, an integrated assessment based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework was undertaken in Rautamai Rural Municipality of Udayapur District, Eastern Nepal. The study applied three broad approaches and multiple tools. This included a set of participatory tools (10 focus group discussions and 36 key informant interviews), followed by a household survey (439 households), and complemented by geospatial tools. The study identified three major ecosystems, namely forest ecosystems, agro-ecosystems, and freshwater ecosystems on which over 75% households were dependent for their livelihood. Collectively, these ecosystems provide 27 provisioning services, 14 regulating, 6 cultural, and 4 supporting services. Among the three ecosystems, the forest ecosystem provides the maximum number of services (40%). However, about 69% households depend on agro-ecosystems as their primary source of livelihoods. There have been subtle changes in land use over the last 18 years, which has had notable impacts on the flow of ecosystem services, and it reflected in people’s perceptions. The study highlights the importance of ecosystem services and the implications of land use change on the flow of these services and wellbeing of people in rural Nepal. The findings of this study will be instrumental for land use planning and incentive-based conservation being planned by Nepal aimed at building socio-ecological resilience.

Ecology and Evolution of Avian Malaria: Implications of Land Use Changes and Climate Change on Disease Dynamics

Ecology and Evolution of Avian Malaria: Implications of Land Use Changes and Climate Change on Disease Dynamics

Agricultural households’ adaptation to weather shocks in Sub-Saharan Africa: implications for land-use change and deforestation

AbstractAgriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa is regularly threatened by the occurrence of weather shocks. We wonder whether the way farmers respond to shocks can affect land use and induce deforestation. Reviewing the existing literature, we found that this question has only been marginally studied. Drawing from the adaptation and land-use change literatures, we then expose the mechanisms through which weather shocks can push farmers to induce land-use change, or conversely to foster conservation. As farmers cope with shocks, their responses can cause degradations in ecosystems which could, in the long term, encourage deforestation and land-use change. To prepare for the next growing season, or adapt to climate variability and risk in the longer term, farmers also make structural adjustments in their farm and land-use decisions, which may lead to changes in land holding. They also resort to adaptation strategies that can indirectly affect land-use decisions by affecting households’ resources (labor, income).

Assessing Interactions between Agriculture, Livestock Grazing and Wildlife Conservation Land Uses: A Historical Example from East Africa

Despite mobile livestock grazing being widely recognized as one of the most viable and sustainable land uses for semi-arid savanna, which can deliver clear wildlife conservation benefits, the levels of pastoral sedentarization and transitions to agricultural livelihoods continue to rise in many pastoral communities across the world. Using questionnaire interviews with community elders, our study assessed changing trends in livestock grazing, wildlife conservation, and sedentarization levels from the 1960s to the present day across three savannas in southern Kenya. Our study identified the drivers of land uses and land subdivision and the implications of land use change on savanna ecology. Over the last half century, there has been a 30% decline in livestock grazing land in southern Kenya due to the expansion of land for agriculture and wildlife conservation. Despite the decline, livestock grazing remains the preferred land use in subdivided and privatized lands. Pastoralist land used for wildlife conservation was perceived to be higher (30%) in southwestern Kenya compared to southeastern Kenya (16%), despite their geographical proximity. These historical insights provide useful lessons for maintaining space for wildlife, diversifying livelihoods, and increasing the resilience of pastoralists in the process of transitioning from traditional subsistence to market economies and the threats of social and ecological dislocation.

Valuing Density: An Evaluation of the Extent to which American, Australian, and Canadian Cities Account for the Climate Benefits of Density through Environmental Review

This study looks at the extent to which major cities in the United States, Australia, and Canada assess the climate impacts of densification through the environmental review process. Research indicates that greater urban density is associated with lower household greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in high GDP countries. Yet there is reason to believe that cities may be taking a parochial approach to evaluating the climate impacts of rezonings in their environmental reviews that fails to consider the environmental costs of maintaining low density. In this study, we survey the legal and policy frameworks governing the environmental review in American, Australian, and Canadian cities to determine the extent to which they consider and analyze the GHG benefits of land use changes that increase urban density. We also analyze environmental review documents for proposals to increase residential density in cities to determine the extent to which policy makers have incorporated empirical knowledge regarding the relationship between density and GHGs emissions into their environmental reviews of proposed land use changes. We find that very few cities of those we surveyed use a formal environmental review process for analyzing the GHG impacts of land use changes. In addition, the small number of cities in our survey that analyze the GHG implications of land use changes do not appear to comprehensively consider the broader GHG benefits of densification. In fact, cities that assess the GHG impacts of zoning changes appear more likely to consider densification as causing climate harms rather than climate benefits.

Nutrient and sediment fluxes in microbasins with different conservation states in the northeastern Brazil.

The implications of land use change in small watersheds through the conversion of forests to agropastoral areas have altered the natural nutrient cycle, intensifying exports under freshwater ecosystems. This study aimed to investigate the land use effects on nutrient and sediment exports in two small watersheds in northeastern Brazil to understand if anthropogenic disturbance alters the structure end functioning of these systems. Thus, land use mapping and hydrological treatment of a digital elevation model were made to characterize the basins. Water samples were collected monthly from Aug. 2016 to Jan. 2017 to evaluate suspended sediments and dissolved nutrient fluxes ([Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and dissolved organic nitrogen and phosphorus). The results indicated that land use change had a greater influence on exports from the most disturbed basin, where the nutrient and sediment increments were respectively an average 6.61 and 5.81 times higher than the most preserved basin. Thus, the conservation status of the forest cover has influenced the assimilation capacity of diffuse loads, highlighting the differences between the microbasins of this study.

Implications of Land Use Dynamics on Ecosystem Service Value: A Case Study from Goalpara District of Assam, Northeast India

Systematic studies on implications of land use change on ecosystem service value (ESV) at landscape level are scarce in Northeast India hence, a case study was undertaken in the vicinity of Ghagra Pahar Forest (GPF) predominated by tropical deciduous forest in Goalpara district of Assam. Study aims to assess the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the forest ecosystem. Altogether 23 ES were identified and grouped based on peoples’ knowledge and perceptions. Study area has been categorized in to six land use types. Temporal change analysis revealed that the area coverage under plantation, agriculture and settlement expanded, on the contrary, forest cover, water bodies and grassland decreased remarkably within a time gap of 20 years. The total ESV for the study area was disproportionately distributed among the different functions of ecosystem. Agricultural land contributed the maximum ESV. The total ESV declined at a rate of 0.64 percent per year with a net decrease of 12.7 percent. Sensitivity analysis shows that the values were less than unity indicating that total ecosystem service values would fluctuate only by 0.03-0.42 percent. Results of this study would be useful to the land use planners and policy makers to prioritise conservation efforts for sustainable resource management.

Effects of land-use change and prey abundance on the body condition of an obligate carnivore at the wildland-urban interface

Land-use change represents a primary driver of carnivore population declines, yet some large carnivore species have acclimated and persist within anthropogenically altered landscapes. Previous attention has been focused on the genetic and behavioral implications of land-use changes, but few studies have investigated how human development impacts animal physiology and health. Here we examined how body condition scores of a widely distributed North American carnivore, the puma (Puma concolor), are affected by anthropogenic habitat modification. For this study we collected 252 puma camera trap events across a land-use gradient in the San Francisco Bay Area. We found that pumas in this region generally had body condition scores within a healthy range. However, pumas in areas with marginal development (e.g., parks, golf courses, low-density residences) had significantly higher body condition scores than conspecifics in areas defined as highly developed (urban) or undeveloped (wilderness). Notably, detections of black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) showed the same patterns. Additionally, puma body condition was significantly and positively correlated with detection frequency of small prey like raccoons and squirrels. Taken together, our findings show that pumas are present in developed environments, and suggest that puma body condition may reflect relative prey abundance across land-use types. We suggest that in mixed-use landscapes where public tolerance of large carnivores is sufficient, management efforts should integrate non-wilderness lands into conservation plans for pumas. However, in areas defined by low tolerance or high conflict potential, management should focus on public education and control of food resources that attract pumas to those areas.

Evaluating Landuse Change along Thiruvananthapuram Coast, South West Coast of India Using Geo-spatial Techniques

Coastal zone across the world is typified with intensive multiple human activities. Historic maps and multi-temporal satellite images are helpful in detecting the change in land use over the years. An attempt is made to evaluate the land use/land cover change along the coastal zone of Thiruvananthapuram using Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing techniques. Landuse scenarios for 1988, 2000 and 2010 have been generated using Survey of India Topographical Sheets, Landsat ETM+ Image and Quickbird Image respectively. ERDAS software is used for image processing and land-use change is analysed using ArcGis 10.2.1 Software. The reasons and implications of landuse change in the coast are also studied through field investigation and valid conclusions are drawn. Agricultural land, clustered settlement area, a settlement with vegetation, sandy area and rocky area is the broad landuse categories delineated in the coastal zone. The analysis shows that the agricultural land area has decreased from 9.34% to 3.89% while the area under clustered settlement increased from 5.75 % to 25.65% during 1988-2010. This study can provide base information on land use scenario of the coast while framing out the ICZM plan.

Land surface temperature and heat fluxes over three cities in Niger Delta

This study examines the implications of land use change on land surface temperature (LST) and heat fluxes over three cities in the Niger Delta region, using satellite data. The study was carried out in three major urban areas in the Niger Delta of Nigeria: Benin City, Port Harcourt and Warri. Both in situ and satellite climatological data were used in this study to estimate the variations in heat fluxes over different land use/land cover in three major urban areas around the Niger Delta region in Nigeria. The results showed a general increased in the mean LST, with an average of 1.43 °C increase between the year 2004 and 2015 over different urban land use. The estimated heat flux ranges from 30.55 to 102.05 W/m2in the year 2004 but increased ranges from 33.25 to 120.06 W/m2 in the year 2015. The average heat flux was nearly 30.12 W/m2 during wet season, but much higher during the dry season with average heat flux nearly 215.75 W/m2. Increase in LST appeared to be a result of changes in landuse/landcover in the cities. The results further show that different land uses exhibit different degree of LST during both wet and dry seasons, with temperature nearly 2 °C higher in dry seasons compare to wet seasons. These results imply that urban expansion in the Delta has resulted in variation in boundary currents and higher temperatures in the cities area compared to their immediate rural areas. The major findings of this study are that urban climate, urban heat redistribution and other hydrosphere processes are determined by the change in land use. The study established the potential health implications of increasing in LST and heat flux in the cities. Though, lack of long-term and quality health data made it very difficult to attribute the expansion or resurgence of diseases to change in urban LST, the review of literature has shown that thermal conditions usually contributes to heat syndrome, one of the health issues in the cities.

Detecting and Attributing Drivers of Forest Disturbance in the Colombian Andes Using Landsat Time-Series

The Colombian Andes foothills have seen an expansion of forest disturbance since the 1950s. While understanding the drivers of disturbance is important for quantifying the implications of land use change on regional biodiversity, methods for attributing disturbance to specific drivers of change at a high temporal and spatial resolution are still lacking in the Andes region, in part due to persistent cloud cover. Using 20 years of Landsat images (1996–2015) covering Picachos National Park in the Colombian Andes, we detected sub-annual forest cover disturbances using the Breaks For Additive Season and Trend (BFAST) Monitor algorithm; characterized different types of disturbance using spectral, spatial, and topographic indicators; and attributed causes of forest disturbance such as conversion to pasture, conversion to agriculture, and non-stand replacing disturbance (i.e., thinning) using a Random Forest (RF) classifier. Conversion to pasture has been the main driver of forest disturbance in Picachos, responsible for 11,395 ± 72 ha (17%) of forest cover loss, followed by non-stand replacing disturbance and conversion to agriculture. Disturbance detection had 96% overall agreement with validation data, although we had a high omission error of 21% primarily associated with forest to agriculture conversion. Other change drivers had a much more reliable attribution with forest to pasture conversion or non-stand-replacing disturbance, showing only 1–5% commission and 2–14% omission errors. Our results provide spatially-explicit information on sub-annual disturbances and associated drivers of change that are necessary for evaluating and improving domestic conservation efforts and establishing systematic ecological observations, which is currently absent from Colombia. While effective at revealing forest change dynamics in a geographically remote and socio-politically complex region like Picachos, our approach is highly automated and it can be easily extended to the rest of Andes-Amazon transition belt where low availability of remote sensing data and high cloud cover impede efforts at consistent monitoring of forest cover change dynamics and drivers.

Trade-offs in ecosystem services based on a comprehensive regionalization method: a case study from an urbanization area in China

The lack of effective management of ecosystem services is the main reason for ecosystem degradation; it is an urgency to apply ecosystem service assessment (ESA) to ecosystem management. Ecological function regionalization is a prerequisite job. This study mainly aimed to develop a methodological framework for comprehensive regionalization (CR) and then to find the optimal development scenario by analyzing the trade-offs in eight ecosystem service values (ESVs) of different zones. The data were collected from 2000 to 2010 for a typical urbanization area in China. We used ESA, spatial clustering analysis, and scenario analysis to develop a CR method, and explore the optimal scenario further by analyzing trade-offs of ESVs. The results showed that the increment of total ESVs experienced an ascending trend from the middle to the periphery area during the period 2000–2010. Then, the study area was divided into four zones, namely synergetic development zone, ecological conservation zone, ecological degradation zone, and economic development zone. Finally, in seven scenarios, the protection and development scenario is the optimal situation, with the most balanced increments of eight ESVs. It also suggests that this regionalization result coincides well with the existing ecological protection planning, and this optimal scenario is consistent with the overall land use planning. It demonstrates the applied integrated regionalization, in combination with scenario analysis and trade-offs analysis, helps understanding and communicating index to examine the implications of land use changes for ecosystem management and provides further insights into policy making to develop differentiated ecological compensation mechanism.

Investigating Heat Exchange in Ecosystems with Bottle Biology

Logistics often limit the number of field-based labs that include different types of ecosystems. Moreover, few lab classes allow students the opportunity to measure ecosystem-level changes. This article describes an activity appropriate for high school biology or introductory collegiate biology courses, where bottle biology can provide an opportunity for students to measure differences in temperature and humidity that result with different types of vegetation. This approach allows students to develop an understanding of how ecosystems transfer energy and cycle water, as well as the implications of land use change, such as timber harvest or grassland restoration, on regional climate.