Implications For Cognitive Development Research Articles

Habitual night waking associates with dynamics of waking cortical theta power in infancy.

The implications of the substantial individual differences in infant sleep for early brain development remain unclear. Here, we examined whether night sleep quality relates to daytime brain activity, operationalized through measures of EEG theta power and its dynamic modulation, which have been previously linked to later cognitive development. For this longitudinal study, 76 typically developing infants were studied (age: 4-14 months, 166 individual study visits) over the course of 6months with one, two, three, or four lab visits. Habitual sleep was measured with a 7-day sleep diary and actigraphy, and the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire. Twenty-channel EEG was recorded while infants watched multiple rounds of videos of women singing nursery rhymes; oscillatory power in the theta band was extracted. Key metrics were average theta across stimuli and the slope of change in theta within the first novel movie. Both objective and subjective sleep assessment methods showed a relationship between more night waking and higher overall theta power and reduced dynamic modulation of theta over the course of the novel video stimuli. These results may indicate altered learning and consolidation in infants with more disrupted night sleep, which may have implications for cognitive development.

P011 Preschoolers’ Engagement with Screens: Time of Day and Associations with Sleep and Cognitive Development

Abstract Screen time is associated with poorer sleep in children, but there are calls for more evidence in the preschool years – a period of rapid cognitive and language development which are both influenced by sleep. The aim was to investigate preschool children’s length of exposure to screen media and associations with sleep duration and sleep quality, but also screen content and times of day children engaged with screens. Associations with cognitive development were also assessed. The study was conducted with an online questionnaire completed by caregivers recruited via social media. Most children engaged with content of an entertaining nature. Half of the children engaged with screens during the day only and half both during the day and at night. Longer time engaged with screens was associated with shorter sleep duration and poorer sleep quality and this was regardless of time of day of engagement. Greater screen time also predicted lower communication and problem solving scores, and more attention difficulties, but sleep duration was not a significant predictor of cognitive outcomes. The findings indicate that preschoolers’ engagement with screens has implications for their sleep even when engagement is predominantly occurring during the day. Greater screen time also has implications for cognitive development during a sensitive period. The findings raise questions about the time children spend on screens even during the day that could be spent on activities that better support sleep and development. Future studies with objective measures of sleep and direct measures of cognition with preschoolers are needed.

The Relationship Between Media Multitasking Behavior and Executive Function in Adolescence: A Replication Study

The proliferation of digital gadgets and increased media consumption among adolescents has raised interest and concern regarding possible effects on cognitive functioning. Research investigating this relationship has yielded mixed results. This study aims to replicate the research conducted by Baumgartner et al. concerning the relationship between adolescent media multitasking and executive functioning on a sample of 296 Romanian early adolescents. The same methodology as the original study was followed and its findings were partially replicated. Mainly, results of regression analyses indicated that more media multitasking with media activities was related to more self-reported executive difficulties, but not with performance on three computerized executive functioning tasks. Media multitasking with non-media activities was unrelated to executive functioning. When comparing extreme groups, however, heavier media multitasking was associated with faster performance on the task-shifting and inhibition computerized tasks. Implications for cognitive development and research methodology are discussed.

Chapter 20 - Learning abilities

Learning abilities are present in infancy, as they are critical for adaptation. From simple habituation and novelty responses to stimuli, learning capacities evolve throughout the lifespan. During development, learning abilities become more flexible and integrated across sensory modalities, allowing the encoding of more complex information, and in larger amounts. In turn, an increasing knowledge base leads to adaptive changes in behavior, making responses and actions more precise and effective. The objective of this chapter is to review the main behavioral manifestations of human learning abilities in early development and their biologic underpinnings, ranging from the cellular level to neurocognitive systems and mechanisms. We first focus on the ability to learn from repetitions of stimuli and how years of research in this field have recently contributed to theories of fundamental brain mechanisms whose implications for cognitive development are under study. The ability to memorize associations between different items and events is addressed next as we review the variety of contexts in which this associative memory and its neurologic bases come into play. Together, repetition-based learning and associative memory provide powerful means of understanding the surrounding environment, not only through the gathering and consolidation of specific types of information, but also by continually testing and adjusting stored information to better adapt to changing conditions.

Acute neuroinflammation elicited by TLR-3 systemic activation combined with early life stress induces working memory impairments in male adolescent mice

Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) are implicated with the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment induced by inflammation. Early life stress is associated with altered trajectories of neuroimmune signaling with implications for cognitive development. However, effects of TLR-3 activation on early life stress-related cognitive outcomes are understudied. We investigated the effects of maternal separation (MS) during postnatal development and a viral immune challenge during adolescence on working memory performance. BALB/c mice exposed to MS were separated from their dams daily for 180-min from postnatal day (PND) 2 to 15. At PND 45, animals were challenged with a single i.p. injection of either Poly (I:C) or sterile saline, and then subjected to a spatial working memory test in a Y-maze apparatus. Gene expression was determined by qPCR. Protein levels of oxidative stress markers were also assessed. A single peripheral administration of a TLR-3 agonist was able to induce working memory impairments in adolescent mice exposed to MS. At a molecular level, exposure to MS was associated with lower mRNA levels of Tlr3 in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). However, when MS animals were exposed to Poly (I:C), a more robust activation of Tlr3, Il6 and Nfkb1 gene transcription was observed in these mice compared with control animals. These modifications did not result in oxidative stress. Finally, higher mRNA levels of Nfkb1 in the mPFC were correlated with lower working memory performance, suggesting that altered NF-κB signaling might be related with poor cognitive functioning. These results have implications for how ELS affects neuroimmune signaling in the mPFC.

Sex related biases for attending to object color versus object position are reflected in reaction time and accuracy.

Processing of visual features related to objects and space relations occurs within separate cortical streams that interact with selective attention. Such separation has implications for cognitive development because the perception of ‘what’ and ‘where’ provide a neural foundation for the development of aspects of higher cognition. Thus, a small attentional bias in early development for attending to one aspect over the other might influence subsequent higher cognitive processing in tasks involving object recognition and space relations. We examined 134 men and women for evidence of an inherent sex-related bias for attending to basic perceptual features related to object discrimination versus object position. Each stimulus consisted of a circle located in one of 9 positions within a surrounding frame. Circles were one of three shades of blue or red. These stimuli were used in a match-to-sample paradigm where participants were required to match circles on the basis of color or spatial position. The first stimulus appeared in the center of the screen for 400 msec and the matching stimulus subsequently appeared for 400 msec oriented 5 degrees to the right or left of center. The same stimuli were used to test the perception of color and position, with order of testing counterbalanced across participants. Results showed significantly longer reaction times in females compared with males, with better accuracy to discriminate color when that color was tested before position. Males showed better accuracy when object position was tested before color discrimination. A second experiment employed the same procedure, but enhanced selective attention by adding an endogenous cue that predicted the right or left location for the appearance of the matching stimulus. This manipulation greatly attenuated the sex differences in reaction time and accuracy compared to Experiment 1, suggesting that the sex-related attentional biases are strongly coupled to bottom-up processing. Overall, the sex related attentional biases toward processing object characteristics versus object position location suggest a differential manifestation of biased competition between the weighted systems of dorsal and ventral stream processing. Results are discussed with how a developmental bias in the processing objects versus space relations may contribute to adult cognitive sex differences in humans and animals.

Growth recovery and faltering through early adolescence in low- and middle-income countries: Determinants and implications for cognitive development

Child chronic undernutrition, as measured by stunting, is prevalent in low- and middle-income countries and is among the major threats to child development. While stunting and its implications for cognitive development have been considered irreversible beyond early childhood there is a lack of consensus in the literature on this, as there is some evidence of recovery from stunting and that this recovery may be associated with improvements in cognition. Less is known however, about the drivers of growth recovery and the aspects of recovery linked to cognitive development. In this paper we investigate the factors associated with growth recovery and faltering through age 12 years and the implications of the incidence, timing, and persistence of post-infancy recovery from stunting for cognitive development using longitudinal data from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam. We find that the factors most systematically associated with accelerated growth both before and after early childhood and across countries include mother's height, household living standards and shocks, community wages, food prices, and garbage collection. Our results suggest that post-infancy recovery from stunting is more likely to be systematically associated with higher achievement scores across countries when it is persistent and that associations between growth trajectories and cognitive achievement in middle childhood do not persist through early adolescence across countries. Overall, our findings indicate that growth after early childhood is responsive to changes in the household and community environments and that growth promotion after early childhood may yield improvements in child cognitive development.

Long term health status of children recovering from severe acute malnutrition.

Long term health status of children recovering from severe acute malnutrition.

Education is associated with higher later life IQ scores, but not with faster cognitive processing speed.

Recent reports suggest a causal relationship between education and IQ, which has implications for cognitive development and aging-education may improve cognitive reserve. In two longitudinal cohorts, we tested the association between education and lifetime cognitive change. We then tested whether education is linked to improved scores on processing-speed variables such as reaction time, which are associated with both IQ and longevity. Controlling for childhood IQ score, we found that education was positively associated with IQ at ages 79 (Sample 1) and 70 (Sample 2), and more strongly for participants with lower initial IQ scores. Education, however, showed no significant association with processing speed, measured at ages 83 and 70. Increased education may enhance important later life cognitive capacities, but does not appear to improve more fundamental aspects of cognitive processing.

The ‘autistic’ level of the Oedipus complex

In this paper, the author describes some of the tripartite constellations occurring in the material of children on the autistic spectrum. These could be thought of as constituting a primitive, ‘autistic’ level of the Oedipus complex where the fundamental anxieties are existential ones. It is suggested that these fears of annihilation are experienced on a bodily level, and that this physical aspect appears to be a distinguishing feature of the experience of the Oedipal constellation in children with autism. The clinical illustrations concern the experience of bodily mutilation within the feeding relationship; Oedipal aspects of sense perception; the nature of the link between masculine and feminine elements making up the psychic skin; and the balance between the child, the mother, and the mother' internal figures. Some implications for cognitive development are discussed.

Learning a theory of causality.

The very early appearance of abstract knowledge is often taken as evidence for innateness. We explore the relative learning speeds of abstract and specific knowledge within a Bayesian framework and the role for innate structure. We focus on knowledge about causality, seen as a domain-general intuitive theory, and ask whether this knowledge can be learned from co-occurrence of events. We begin by phrasing the causal Bayes nets theory of causality and a range of alternatives in a logical language for relational theories. This allows us to explore simultaneous inductive learning of an abstract theory of causality and a causal model for each of several causal systems. We find that the correct theory of causality can be learned relatively quickly, often becoming available before specific causal theories have been learned--an effect we term the blessing of abstraction. We then explore the effect of providing a variety of auxiliary evidence and find that a collection of simple perceptual input analyzers can help to bootstrap abstract knowledge. Together, these results suggest that the most efficient route to causal knowledge may be to build in not an abstract notion of causality but a powerful inductive learning mechanism and a variety of perceptual supports. While these results are purely computational, they have implications for cognitive development, which we explore in the conclusion.

Multiple Concurrent Thoughts: The Meaning and Developmental Neuropsychology of Working Memory

Working memory can be described as the small amount of information held in a readily accessible state, available to help in the completion of cognitive tasks. There has been considerable confusion among researchers regarding the definition of working memory, which can be attributed to the difficulty of reconciling descriptions from working memory researchers with very different theoretical orientations. Here I review theories of working memory and some of the main issues in the field, discuss current behavioral and neuropsychological research that can address these issues, and consider the implications for cognitive development.

The influence of dietary status on the cognitive performance of children

The rapid rate of growth of the brain during the last third of gestation and the early postnatal stage makes it vulnerable to an inadequate diet, although brain development continues into adulthood and micronutrient status can influence functioning beyond infancy. Certain dietary deficiencies during the first 2 years of life, for example iodine and iron, create problems that are not reversed by a later adequate diet. It is important that the intake of micronutrients varies greatly between individuals as they are essential for metabolism in general and in particular cell division and hence growth. In developing countries, there is consistent evidence that the adequacy of diet has lasting implications for cognitive development. In particular, attention has been directed to protein-calorie malnutrition and more specifically the intake of iron, iodine and vitamin A, a deficiency of which damages eyesight. In industrialized countries variations in diet are less influential, although a few well-designed studies have reported that multivitamin and mineral supplementations influence anti-social behaviour and intelligence. In the short term, there is increasing evidence that the missing of breakfast has negative consequences late in the morning. A working hypothesis is that meals of a low rather than high glycaemic load are beneficial.

Home variables, attitudes and gender correlates of secondary school students\' cognitive achievement

This study examined the influence of some home variables, attitudes and gender on secondary school student's achievement. It adopted an ex-post facto research type and used multi-stage sampling and simple random sampling procedures to select three hundred Economic students (148 males and 152 females) in their second year of senior secondary school (SSII). Three instruments were developed for data collection. A t-test, analysis of variance and multiple regression were used for data analysis. The findings of the study revealed that students' home variables, attitudes and gender jointly predicted students' achievement. The study, however showed that students' attitudes and gender separately did not significantly predict achievement in Economics. The findings have implications for cognitive development in students. Further research is needed to examine other home variables not included in the study. Global Journal of Educational Research Vol. 5 (1&2) 2006: pp. 39-42

The effects of a motor training package on minimally assisted standing behavior in a three-month-old infant.

Abstract Behavior analysts have spent relatively little time in designing interventions to enhance motor development in typically developing infants and children. This study examines the effect of a motor training package consisting of opportunity to respond and practice (standing the infant and letting her hold the fingers of the experimenter), conditioned leg kicks (using Fischer Price's Kick and Play) and buttocks and trunk lifts (stimulated by contingent imitation of the infants responses) on minimally assisted standing behavior in a three month old infant. Using an ABAB reversal design, we were able to dramatically increase the amount of time the infant stood and decrease the infant's rate of wobbling while standing. Future directions for this research are discussed. Key words: Opportunity to respond, practice, standing, infant, cusp skills, and motor development ********** Thelen and Fisher (1982) reignited interest in environmental variables that affect infants motor development. Behavioral theories of development tend to hold that development is the product of person-environment interactions (Novak & Pelaez, 2004) and that learning plays a central role in development (Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1994). While behavior analysts and behavioral educators have completed research on many areas of development including adaptive physical education with school aged children (Magill, 1993; Schmidt, 1991), infant motor development appears to have lagged behind. One concept that holds considerable promise for infant motor development is opportunity to respond (Greenwood, Carta, Hart, Kamps, Terry, Arreaga-Mayer, Atwater, Walker, Risley, & Delquadri, 1992). Opportunity to respond has potential in facilitating children's language development (Hart & Risley, 1995) and has significant implications for cognitive development (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984; Greenwood, Hart, Walker, & Risley, 1994). However, a literature search on the term, using psycho-info, produced no results for the area of motor development. We became interested in the subject matter of opportunity to respond, as well as sensory reinforcement for motor behavior, because it was: (1) simple enough to track; (2) susceptible to environmental influences; and (3) a fun series of activities for parents to do with typical infants. The current study represents an on going extension of our work on motor development. Methods Participant Participant: is a three-month-old female. She is typically developing. She is the same subject as previously described in Cautilli and Dziewolska (2005). At birth subject was 9lbs 15 ounces and 22 inches placing her in the 99%ile for weight and 98%ile for height. At the time of the study she was approximately 18lbs and 26 inches long. Procedure Intervention Package The package consisted of a daily routine. This routine included: --Two to three periods of approximately 20 minutes in the Fischer Price Kick and Play[c]. The Kick and Play uses visual and auditory reinforcement in the form of flashing lights and common children's tunes for kicking responses. The tunes are played on an intermittent schedule with brief segments of sound played for kicks that do not achieve full reinforcement of a song. --10-15 standing episodes. These episodes involve the infant grabbing on to the two index fingers of the experimenter. The infant is then lifted to the standing position. The fingers represent an assist to give the infant an opportunity to respond. While in the standing position, the experimenter would look very excited by raising eyes, making exaggerated facial expressions, and talking to the infant--praising her for standing. --Two 15-minute episodes of contingent imitation for trunk and buttocks lifting. This procedure was identical to the procedure used in Cautilli & Dziewolska (2005). …

Analytic and heuristic processing influences on adolescent reasoning and decision-making.

The normative/descriptive gap is the discrepancy between actual reasoning and traditional standards for reasoning. The relationship between age and the normative/descriptive gap was examined by presenting adolescents with a battery of reasoning and decision-making tasks. Middle adolescents (N = 76) performed closer to normative ideals than early adolescents (N = 66), although the normative/descriptive gap was large for both groups. Correlational analyses revealed that (1) normative responses correlated positively with each other, (2) nonnormative responses were positively interrelated, and (3) normative and nonnormative responses were largely independent. Factor analyses suggested that performance was based on two processing systems. The "analytic" system operates on "decontextualized" task representations and underlies conscious, computational reasoning. The "heuristic" system operates on "contextualized," content-laden representations and produces "cognitively cheap" responses that sometimes conflict with traditional norms. Analytic processing was more clearly linked to age and to intelligence than heuristic processing. Implications for cognitive development, the competence/performance issue, and rationality are discussed.

Multiple memory systems, development and conditioning

A century of behavioral and neurobiological research suggests that Pavlovian conditioning involves three component memory systems: sensorimotor, affective and cognitive. In classical eyeblink conditioning, there is evidence that these three memory systems involve, respectively, the cerebellum, amygdala and hippocampus. This article reviews developmental research on eyeblink conditioning in rodents that is beginning to characterize ontogenetic dissociations and interactions among these memory systems. This research shows that the functional development of the affective system (conditioned fear response) precedes that of the sensorimotor system (conditioned eyeblink reflex). Modulation of these two systems by cognitive processes also seems to emerge at different points in ontogeny. Implications for cognitive development and research on multiple memory systems are discussed.

Infant perseveration and implications for cognitive development: A neural network model of the AB̄ task

Infant perseveration and implications for cognitive development: A neural network model of the AB̄ task

Pubertal and Psychosocial Development: Implications for Pediatricians

The endocrinology and somatic events of puberty have been well described, and their assessment is incorporated routinely into the evaluation of the adolescent patient. Because of the increasing collaboration between behavioral scientists and physicians who share an interest in the developing adolescent, understanding of the interactions between the physical, cognitive, and psychological experiences of this age group has grown. Examining the contextual and possible predictive implications of variations in pubertal events and their timing will help the pediatrician to guide and counsel adolescents and their parents. Findings from recent research have highlighted the salience of gender differences in the experience of puberty and in the timing of its onset and tempo as well as the importance of being earlier in maturation rather than synchronous or later than one's peers. In this article, we will consider the findings in four major domains: 1) the effect of adolescent development on family homeostasis; 2) the implications for cognitive development; 3) the implications for personality (psychological) development; and 4) the recognition of risk factors or markers for problem behavior. Pubertal Development and Family Homeostasis One of the earliest tasks of adolescence is to separate from the family emotionally in preparation for developing independence. For girls, pubertal development may be the signal to their fathers to be less physically affectionate.

Pubertal and psychosocial development implications for pediatricians.

The endocrinology and somatic events of puberty have been well described, and their assessment is incorporated routinely into the evaluation of the adolescent patient. Because of the increasing collaboration between behavioral scientists and physicians who share an interest in the developing adolescent, understanding of the interactions between the physical, cognitive, and psychological experiences of this age group has grown. Examining the contextual and possible predictive implications of variations in pubertal events and their timing will help the pediatrician to guide and counsel adolescents and their parents. Findings from recent research have highlighted the salience of gender differences in the experience of puberty and in the timing of its onset and tempo as well as the importance of being earlier in maturation rather than synchronous or later than one9s peers. In this article, we will consider the findings in four major domains: 1) the effect of adolescent development on family homeostasis; 2) the implications for cognitive development; 3) the implications for personality (psychological) development; and 4) the recognition of risk factors or markers for problem behavior. Pubertal Development and Family Homeostasis One of the earliest tasks of adolescence is to separate from the family emotionally in preparation for developing independence. For girls, pubertal development may be the signal to their fathers to be less physically affectionate.