Implementation Of Control Programs Research Articles

A Knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) study on sheep owners regarding fasciolosis in northwest of Tunisia

Fasciolosis is a worldwide zoonotic snail-borne infection that affects ruminants, it causes high economic losses among livestock. A participatory epidemiological survey was conducted on 204 sheep owners of Sejnane region (District of Bizerte, Northwest Tunisia) to assess their knowledge, attitude and practice regarding fasciolosis. All interviewed sheep owners are aware of this parasitic infection (100%, 204/204), among them, 81% (165/204) reported history of clinical cases in their sheep flocks. According to 33.73% (113/335) of them, sheep get infected by fasciolosis mainly by grazing in wet areas, 79.9% (163/204) of these farmers think that wet climate is the most favourable for the infection. Weight loss (28.40%, 121/426) and submandibular oedema (20.42%, 87/426) are the main clinical signs of fasciolosis cited by interviewed sheep owners and the majority of them (98.53%; 201/204) confirmed that fasciolosis causes significant economic losses. Fasciolosis infection persists in Sejnane region despite the use of antiparasitic drugs, this is due mainly to the fact that animals graze in moist grass (39.88%, 132/331). Treat animals (51.47%, 193/375), prohibit grazing on moist grass (15.20%, 57/357), prohibit grazing on wet soils (14.33%, 53/357) and avoid pastures (10.93%, 41/357) are the main prevention measures cited by interviewed sheep owners. Only 18,14% (37/204) of responders knew that fascioliasis is a zoonotic disease. These results could be considered by animal health decision makers and field veterinarians when implementing control programmes in order to increase breeders' knowledge of fasciolosis.

Recombinant Proteins based ‘rELISA’ Field Validation for Differential Diagnosis of Johne’s Disease in Goats

Background: Johne’s disease (JD), caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), is spreaded worldwide in domestic livestock. It is very clear that JD control program having tedious complications so, only ‘Test and cull’ and ‘vaccination’ strategies are key components in JD control program. ‘Test and cull’ policy is not feasible in Indian condition due to religious beliefs However, vaccination interferes with the immunological tests used for screening of infected and vaccinated (Healthy) animals. Thus, a test that can differentiate between infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA) is needed before implementation of vaccination program. Methods: Herein, we evaluated two in-house ELISA tests i.e., recombinant proteins-based ELISA (rELISA); developed by using six MAP specific recombinant culture filtrate proteins and indigenous ELISA (i_ELISA); developed using whole-cell protoplasmic MAP antigens for their potential. Sera collected from goats under ‘infected’, ‘healthy and vaccinated’ and ‘healthy and non-vaccinated’ groups were tested by both the tests. Result: On analyzing the anti-MAP antibodies level detected by both the ELISAs and anti-MAP antibodies against secretary proteins only detected in i_ELISA, it was concluded that rELISA can differentiate healthy, vaccinated and infected goats, if used in-combination with i_ELISA. Therefore, recombinant proteins based rELISA has potential to be considered as companion tool for future diagnostic for successful implementation of JD vaccination control program.

Genetic Characterization of Small Ruminant Lentiviruses Isolated from Dairy Sheep in Greece.

The high genetic heterogeneity of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) renders the genetic characterization of the circulating strains crucial for the epidemiological investigation and the designation of effective diagnostic tools. In Greece, research data regarding the genetic diversity of the circulating SRLV strains is scarce, hindering the implementation of efficient surveillance and control programs. The objective of the study was to genetically characterize SRLV strains isolated from intensive dairy sheep farms in Greece and evaluate the variability of the immunodominant regions of the capsid protein. For this reason, a total of 12 SRLV-infected animals from four intensive dairy sheep farms with purebred Chios and Lacaune ewes were used for the amplification and sequencing of an 800 bp gag-pol fragment. The phylogenetic analyses revealed a breed-related circulation of strains; Chios ewes were infected with strains belonging exclusively to a separate group of genotype A, whereas strains belonging to subtype B2 were isolated from Lacaune ewes. Immunodominant epitopes of capsid protein were quite conserved among the strains of the same genotype, except for the Major Homology Region which showed some unique mutations with potential effects on viral evolution. The present study contributes to the extension of the current knowledge regarding the genetic diversity of SRLV strains circulating in sheep in Greece. However, broader genetic characterization studies are warranted for the exploration of possible recombinant events and the more comprehensive classification of the circulating strains.

Salmonella Control in Swine: A Thoughtful Discussion of the Pre- and Post-Harvest Control Approaches in Industrialized Countries.

Pork is among the major sources of human salmonellosis in developed countries. Since the 1990s, different surveys and cross-sectional studies, both national and international (i.e., the baseline studies performed in the European Union), have revealed and confirmed the widespread non-typhoidal Salmonella serotypes in pigs. A number of countries have implemented control programs with different approaches and degrees of success. The efforts could be implemented either at farms, in post-harvest stages, or both. The current review revises the current state of the art in Salmonella in swine, the control programs ongoing or conducted in the past, and their strengths and failures, with particular attention to the weight of pre- and post-harvest control and the implications that both have for the success of interventions or mitigation after outbreaks. This review provides a novel perspective on Salmonella control in swine, a matter that still includes uncertainties and room for improvement as a question of public health and One Health.

Trends of pre-treatment drug resistance in antiretroviral-naïve people with HIV-1 in the era of second-generation integrase strand-transfer inhibitors in Taiwan.

Monitoring the trends of pre-treatment drug resistance (PDR) and resistance-associated mutations (RAMs) among antiretroviral-naïve people with HIV (PWH) is important for the implementation of HIV treatment and control programmes. We analysed the trends of HIV-1 PDR after the introduction of second-generation integrase strand-transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) in 2016 in Taiwan, when single-tablet regimens of non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI-) and INSTI-based antiretroviral therapy became the preferred treatments. In this multicentre study, we included newly diagnosed, antiretroviral-naïve PWH who underwent tests for RAMs between 2016 and 2022. Pre-treatment genotypic resistance testing was performed, along with HIV-1 subtyping and determinations of plasma HIV RNA load and CD4 lymphocyte counts. RAMs were analysed using the Stanford University HIV Drug Resistance Database and only RAMs conferring at least low-level resistance were included. From 2016 to 2022, pre-treatment blood samples from 3001 newly diagnosed PWH, which constituted 24.3% of newly diagnosed PWH in Taiwan during the study period, were tested. Of the PWH with analysable gene sequences, the HIV-1 PDR prevalence to NNRTIs, nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), first- and second-generation INSTIs and PIs was 10.0%, 2.1%, 2.5%, 0.6% and 0.4%, respectively. While the trends of PDR remained stable for NRTIs, INSTIs and PIs, there was a significantly increasing trend of PDR to NNRTIs from 6.0% in 2016% to 13.1% in 2022 (P = 0.001). After the introduction of second-generation INSTIs in Taiwan, the trends of HIV-1 PDR to NRTIs and INSTIs remained low. Furthermore, there was no significant decrease of the prevalence of PDR toward NNRTIs between 2016 and 2022.

Reinfection of farm dogs following praziquantel treatment in an endemic region of cystic echinococcosis in southeastern Iran.

Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) as a prevalent tapeworm infection of human and herbivorous animals worldwide, is caused by accidental ingestion of Echinococcus granulosus eggs excreted from infected dogs. CE is endemic in the Middle East and North Africa, and is considered as an important parasitic zoonosis in Iran. It is transmitted between dogs as the primary definitive host and different livestock species as the intermediate hosts. One of the most important measures for CE control is dog deworming with praziquantel. Due to the frequent reinfection of dogs, intensive deworming campaigns are critical for breaking CE transmission. Dog reinfection rate could be used as an indicator of the intensity of local CE transmission in endemic areas. However, our knowledge on the extent of reinfection in the endemic regions is poor. The purpose of the present study was to determine E. granulosus reinfection rate after praziquantel administration in a population of owned dogs in Kerman, Iran. A cohort of 150 owned dogs was recruited, with stool samples collected before praziquantel administration as a single oral dose of 5 mg/kg. The re-samplings of the owned dogs were performed at 2, 5 and 12 months following initial praziquantel administration. Stool samples were examined microscopically using Willis flotation method. Genomic DNA was extracted, and E. granulosus sensu lato-specific primers were used to PCR-amplify a 133-bp fragment of a repeat unit of the parasite genome. Survival analysis was performed using Kaplan-Meier method to calculate cumulative survival rates, which is used here to capture reinfection dynamics, and monthly incidence of infection, capturing also the spatial distribution of disease risk. Results of survival analysis showed 8, 12 and 17% total reinfection rates in 2, 5 and 12 months following initial praziquantel administration, respectively, indicating that 92, 88 and 83% of the dogs had no detectable infection in that same time periods. The monthly incidence of reinfection in total owned dog population was estimated at 1.5% (95% CI 1.0-2.1). The results showed that the prevalence of echinococcosis in owned dogs, using copro-PCR assay was 42.6%. However, using conventional microscopy, 8% of fecal samples were positive for taeniid eggs. Our results suggest that regular treatment of the dog population with praziquantel every 60 days is ideal, however the frequency of dog dosing faces major logistics and cost challenges, threatening the sustainability of control programs. Understanding the nature and extent of dog reinfection in the endemic areas is essential for successful implementation of control programs and understanding patterns of CE transmission.

Molecular Genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Humans in the Yazd County, Central of Iran.

We aimed to investigate the molecular genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Humans in the Yazd County, Central, Iran. Total of 35 fecal samples were collected from patients referred to Yazd Central Laboratory, Yazd, Iran from February to July 2022. All the samples were included in this study after microscopic observation of G. duodenalis. DNA samples were extracted using related kit and were analyzed by Nano Drop. The molecular assessment was carried out using semi-nested PCR using the target gene of gdh. All amplified samples were sequenced using Sanger method. BLAST analyzed the sequences for assemblage identification. Out of 35 samples, 24 (68.57%) and 11 (31.43%) were male and female, respectively. All included samples were amplified using the specific gdh primer pair. The molecular analysis showed 17 isolates (48.57%) as assemblage BIV, 8 isolates (22.86%) as assemblage BIII, 6 isolates (17.14%) as assemblage AII and 4 isolates (11.43%) as assemblage AIII (P<0.05). Assemblages A and B are the most prevalent in Central Iran. The molecular identification of G. duodenalis isolates from animals and implementing control programs.

Analysis of the implementation of the pulmonary TB control program at puskesmas Balocci, Balocci district, Pangkep

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that can cause mortality caused by (Mycobacterium Tuberculosis), it attacks the lung organs and other organs so a TB control program is needed maximally. WHO (World Health Organization) states that TB is a major health problem in the world which causes morbidity in millions of people each year. In 2015-2017 the number of pulmonary TB in the Balocci Health Center was 271 people, of which only 168 patients were declared cured (62.7%), this indicates that the cure rate for Pulmonary TB patients has not reached the set target of 85%. This research was survey research by using a qualitative approach to analyze a control program. This research aims to analyze TB control programs in Balocci Health. The data was collected by observation and in-depth interviews with 6 informants consisting of the head of Mandala Health Center, Tuberculosis staff, tuberculosis patients, patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, and patient Dropouts. The result showed that the TB control program by DOTS strategy in Mandala Health Center was not done well. It is seen that tuberculosis patients don’t get enough knowledge about tuberculosis diseases and understand it, lack of monitoring of the implementation of the Pulmonary TB program for patients with pulmonary tuberculosis which is characterized by a lack of active role in PMO (Drug Controllers) specifically designated for patients with pulmonary TB so that TB patients do not regularly take medication. Based on this research result, Pulmonary TB officers are expected to evaluate the PMO that has been appointed so that the PMO can play an active role in monitoring pulmonary TB patients to take medicine regularly and motivate patients with pulmonary TB.

Adaptation through knowledge coexistence: insights for environmental and sea lamprey stewardship

ABSTRACT Strategies for tackling environmental issues, including the consequences of invasive species and corresponding control efforts, are frequently approached through a Western scientific lens that often overlooks Indigenous rights and Indigenous knowledge systems. This can cause numerous issues from costly delays in implementing control programmes, overlooking vital ecosystem information and alternative options, legal action due to infringement on rights, and perpetuating systems of oppression. This research uses social science and Indigenous methodologies to understand the Denny’s Dam rehabilitation (DDR) as a case study for relationship-building and knowledge coexistence between the Saugeen Ojibway Nation and the Great Lakes Fisheries Commission in controlling sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), an invasive species in the Laurentian Great Lakes. To evaluate the successes and shortcomings of the project, virtual semi-structured interviews (n = 14) were conducted with key decision-makers and others involved in the rehabilitation of Denny’s Dam, a sea lamprey barrier. Analysis of these interviews identify four main factors that were crucial in the success of the DDR partnership: meaningful communication, funding and capacity, going beyond duty to consult requirements, and early engagement. The DDR shows how knowledge coexistence approaches, including Two-Eyed Seeing, can lead to equitable decision-making, foster collaboration, and contribute to addressing challenges like climate change, invasive species, and various environmental degradation.

Health systems impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on malaria control program implementation and malaria burden in Benin: A mixed-method qualitative and mathematical modelling and study.

The COVID-19 pandemic has sent ripple effects across health systems and impacted the burden of many other diseases, such as malaria in sub-Saharan Africa. This study takes a mixed method approach to assess the impact of COVID-19 on malaria control programs in three rural communes in Benin. We conducted individual semi-structured interviews with key informants who play important roles in malaria control in Benin at three levels of the health system-national, health zone, and commune. Using a purposive sampling technique, informants were interviewed regarding their roles in malaria control, the impact of the pandemic on their activities, and the mitigation strategies adopted. Relevant themes were identified by content analysis. We then formulated an agent-based model of malaria epidemiology to assess the impacts of treatment disruption on malaria burden. The key informant interviews revealed that essential aspects of malaria control were upheld in Benin due to the close collaboration of public health practitioners and health care providers at all levels of the health system. There were some disruptions to case management services for malaria at the start of the pandemic due to the public avoiding health centers and a brief shortage of malaria treatment that may not be entirely attributable to the pandemic. Results from the agent-based model suggest that duration, severity, and timing of treatment disruption can impact malaria burden in a synergistic manner, though the effects are small given the relatively mild disruptions observed. This study highlights the importance of top-down leadership in health emergencies, as well as the critical role of community health workers in preventing negative health outcomes for their communities. We also showcased the integration of qualitative research and mathematical models-an underappreciated form of mixed methods research that offer immense value in the continued evaluation of rapidly evolving health emergencies.

Chagas Disease and Leishmaniasis, Sympatric Zoonoses Present in Human from Rural Communities of Venezuela.

Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. coexist in several endemic areas, and there are few studies of Chagas disease and leishmaniasis coinfection worldwide; for this reason, the objective of this work was to determine the Chagas disease and leishmaniasis coinfection in several rural communities co-endemic for these diseases. A total of 1107 human samples from six co-endemic rural communities of Cojedes state, Venezuela, were analyzed. Serum samples were evaluated by ELISA, indirect hemagglutination, and indirect immunofluorescence for Chagas disease diagnosis, and individuals were evaluated for leishmaniasis by leishmanin skin test (LST). Approximately, 30% of the individuals were also analyzed by PCR (blood clot samples) for T. cruzi and for Leishmania spp. The 14.7% of the individuals were positive to Trypanosoma cruzi infection by serology, and 25.8% were positive to Leishmania spp. current or past infection by LST. Among the group with PCR results, 7.8% were positive for T. cruzi, and 9.4% for Leishmania spp. The coinfection T. cruzi/Leishmania spp. was 6.5%. The T. cruzi DTUs of the positive blood clot samples were TcI, revealed using the molecular markers: (i) intergenic region of the miniexon, (ii) D7 divergent domain of the 24Sα rDNA, (iii) size-variable domain of the 18S rDNA, and (iv) hsp60-PCR-RFLP (EcoRV). The Leishmania species identified were L. (Leishmania) mexicana and L. (Viannia) braziliensis. A high prevalence was found for T. cruzi and Leishmania spp. single and coinfections in almost all communities studied, being these results of relevance for the implementation of control programs in co-endemic areas.

Toward paratuberculosis control in animals: current updates and future perspectives

Paratuberculosis is a chronic non-curable disease, that affects domesticated and wild ruminants, pets and even humans. This disease causes significant economic losses worldwide. Many countries have implemented control programs to eradicate the disease. Such programs face great challenges due to the nature of the pathogen itself, the immune response, the method of pathogen shedding in susceptible animals, and the absence of accurate diagnostic tools, efficient vaccines, and curative medication. However, some control programs succeeded in eradicating the disease, others were less effective and achieved less success. The present review discusses the elements required in disease control protocols and highlights the importance of disease elimination. These control strategies include optimum application of management measures and proper use of combined diagnostic techniques to accurately identify MAP infected animals with high sensitivity and specificity. Nanotechnology has shown promising results in the diagnosis and control of paratuberculosis. All available vaccines do not completely protect the population, but they actually reduce the clinical signs, pathogen shedding and provoke cellular and humoral immune responses. Although the test and slaughter policy of paratuberculosis is considered an effective way for its control, several obstacles hinder its application.

Acaricide resistance in ticks from livestock farms in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

The resistance status in Hyalomma ticks collected from animal farms in three different regions of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi (UAE) was estimated using adult immersion tests with various concentrations of cypermethrin (50ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, 400ppm and 800 ppm). Regression graphs of tick mortality plotted against cypermethrin concentrations were utilized to determine lethal concentrations (LC&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt; and LC&lt;sub&gt;90&lt;/sub&gt;). The data generated on different life history variables (mortality, egg mass weight, reproductive index, and percent inhibition of oviposition) were used to assess the resistance status. Results revealed level III cypermethrin resistance in Hyalomma anatolicum of the Al Hamam region (Al Ain) and level II resistance in the Malaqet region (Al Ain), whereas level I resistance was observed in the other studied locations, except Sweihan (Al Ain) where the tick population was fully susceptible. The LC&lt;sub&gt;90&lt;/sub&gt; value of susceptible (Sweihan) H. anatolicum was 244.87ppm and the discriminating dose (DC) was calculated to be 489.74ppm. The present study is the first report of cypermethrin resistance in ticks of the United Arab Emirates and highlights the need to further monitor resistance evolution during the implementation of tick control programs.

Influence of fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda egg mass scales and layers on the performance of three species of egg parasitoid Trichogramma with different ovipositor lengths

BackgroundThe fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a highly polyphagous and destructive pest of maize and other cereal crops. Biological control is a potential alternative to chemical insecticides used for the management of FAW in maize. Egg parasitoids are promising biocontrol agents as they kill the insect pest at their egg stage before it hatches, thus preventing the damaging larval stage. Trichogramma is widely used in augmentative biological control of FAW in native and invaded regions. However, FAW lay egg masses in layer by layer and eggs are covered with egg scales, this may affect the performance of Trichogramma parasitoids. Therefore, the parasitism potential of three Trichogramma species was studied on eggs with or without scales and layered eggs of FAW, further the impact of parasitoids ovipositor length on parasitism was also determined. This helps to understand the parasitism potential of parasitoids on different egg type for better implementation of biological control programs against FAW.ResultsThe effect of FAW egg mass with or without scales and layered eggs on the performance of Trichogramma chilonis, T. pretiosum and T. mwanzai was studied and results indicated that egg mass scales and the layered eggs were significantly affected the parasitism potential of Trichogramma species, but did not affect the parasitoid emergence. In general, T. chilonis parasitized a higher percentage of eggs with or without scales and layered eggs of FAW than the other two species. T. chilonis and T. mwanzai had a greater ovipositor length than T. pretiosum.ConclusionThe performance of evaluated Trichogramma species on FAW eggs with or without scales and layered eggs affected the parasitism success. The parasitism success of T. chilonis was comparably higher than other tested species. Hence, the scales on egg masses and layered eggs of FAW should be taken into account while selecting the Trichogramma species in the biological control of FAW.

Analysis of the Implementation of Infection Prevention and Control (PCU) Program in the Inpatient Room

This study aims to analyze the application of the infection prevention and control program (PCU) in the inpatient room of the Meuraxa Regional General Hospital, Banda Aceh City. This research is an observational analytic study with a cross-sectional approach with a total sample of 184 respondents who are permanent nurses in the inpatient room of the Meuraxa Regional General Hospital, Banda Aceh City. This study used primary data through distributing questionnaires which were conducted in July 2023. Correlation analysis used statistical contingency coefficient tests and Multiple Logistic Regression tests on multivariate variables. The results showed that gender (p=0.033), age (p=0.004), and length of work (p=0.024) had a correlationwith the implementation of the PCU program in the inpatient room.The Multiple Logistic Regression Test showed that the implementation of the PCU program was 2.79 times higher for female respondents and2.37 times higher implemented at age26 - 35 years. This study shows that gender, age, and length of work have a significant correlationby implementing an infection prevention and control program (PCU) in the inpatient room of the Meuraxa Regional General Hospital, Banda Aceh City.

Trends in Incidence of Prostate Cancer in Iran and Its 31 Provinces During 2003 - 2016

Background: Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy in men, which is the second leading cause of cancer-related death. The prevalence of prostate cancer in Iran is lower than in Western and European countries. Objectives: Our study presents an updated incidence rate of prostate cancer in Iran and its provinces, displays its trends, and adds its spatial distribution to the literature. Methods: We investigate the age-standardized incidence rates (ASIRs) per annum of prostate cancer from 2003 to 2016 in Iran, using the data of the cancer registration available by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. Crude incidence rates were calculated by dividing incident cases by the population of the whole country and each province which was available on the website of Iran Statistic Center. Age standardization was done by the World Health Organization (WHO) standard population and presented according to age and province. Results: The crude number of incident prostate cancer cases in Iran was 49 188 between 2003 and 2016. Age-standardized incidence rate of prostate cancer showed an increasing trend from 4.46 in 2003 to 18.44 per 100 000 in 2016. Mazandaran (29.57 per 100 000 in 2008) and Esfahan (27.5 per 100 000 in 2016 and 26.51 per 100 000 in 2015) were provinces with the highest reported ASIRs, while Sistan and Baluchestan province had the lowest mean of ASIR (1.59 per 100 000) in the period of the study. Conclusions: The incidence of prostate cancer displays an increase of more than 4 times at the end of the study period. However, the increase in coverage of data recording and greater access to diagnostic tests during these years are effective in the reported ASIRS, but the steep slope in the incidence trend of prostate cancer compared to other cancers in Iran shows its capacity to become one of the health problems that underscore the necessity of implementation of control and prevention programs, especially in high-incidence provinces.

Molecular epidemiology and drug sensitivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in homeless individuals in the Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia

Although homeless segment of the society could be the hotspots for tuberculosis (TB) transmission, there is little data on TB in homeless individuals in Ethiopia. The objective of this study was to investigate the molecular epidemiology and drug sensitivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) isolated from homeless individuals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study was conducted on 59 M. tuberculosis isolates, which were recovered by the clinical screening of 5600 homeless individuals and bacteriological examination of 641 individuals with symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). Region of difference-9 (RD9) based polymerase-chain reaction (PCR), Spoligotyping and 24-loci Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Unit-Variable Number Tandem Repeat (MIRU-VNTR) typing were used for genotyping of the isolates. In addition, drug sensitivity test was performed on the isolates using BD Bactec Mycobacterial Growth Inhibition Tube (MGIT) 960. Fifty-eight of the 59 isolates were positive by spoligotyping and spoligotyping International type (SIT) 53, SIT 37, and SIT 149 were the dominant spoligotypes; each consisting of 19%, 15.5%, and10.3% of the isolates, respectively. The majority of the isolates (89.7%) were members of the Euro-American (EA) major lineage. MIRU-VNTR identified Ethiopia_3, Delhi/CAS, Ethiopia_2, TUR, X-type, Ethiopia_H37Rv-like strain, Haarlem and Latin-American Mediterranean (LAM) sub lineages. The proportion of clustering was 77.6% (45/58) in spoligotyping while it was 39.7% (23/58) in 24-loci MIRU-VNTR typing. Furthermore, the proportion of clustering was significantly lowered to 10.3% (6/58) when a combination of spoligotyping and 24-loci MIRU-VNTRplus was used. The recent transmission index (RTI) recorded by spoligotyping, 24-loci MIRU-VNTR typing, and a combination of the two genotyping methods were 58.6%, 27.6% and 5.2%, respectively. Young age and living in groups were significantly associated with strain clustering (P < 0.05). The drug sensitivity test (DST) result showed 8.9% (4/58) of the isolates were resistant to one or more first line ant-TB drugs; but multidrug resistant isolate was not detected. Clustering and RTI could suggest the transmission of TB in the homeless individuals, which could suggest a similar pattern of transmission between homeless individuals and the general population. Hence, the TB control program should consider homeless individuals during the implementation of TB control program.

Progress towards the implementation of control programmes for strongyloidiasis in endemic areas: estimation of number of adults in need of ivermectin for strongyloidiasis.

The World Health Organization has started a process to issue guidelines for the control of strongyloidiasis. The guidelines might recommend to implement preventive chemotherapy (PC) at community level (i.e. to all individuals above 5 years of age), over a defined prevalence threshold. We previously estimated the number of school-age children (SAC) who would need PC. Here we estimate the number of people above 15 years of age who might be included in PC for strongyloidiasis. Based on previous Strongyloides prevalence estimates and on countries' age distribution, we retrieved the number of adults in need of PC. We then subtracted the number of people already involved in ivermectin mass distribution for the elimination of onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis and people living in countries where Loa loa is endemic. The number of adults to be involved in PC was estimated at 905.4 (95% confidence interval (CI): 520.6-1177.2), 660.2 (95% CI: 512.7-1214.9), and 512.1 (95% CI: 276-719.4) million people, when the strongyloidiasis prevalence threshold for implementing PC was set to 10%, 15% and 20%, respectively. Estimates at country level are also provided.These estimates might help endemic countries wishing to implement PC for strongyloidiasis to allocate resources to include adults in addition to SAC in control programmes. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Strongyloides: omics to worm-free populations'.

Incidence of Microbial Pattern Pre and Post Infection Control Training at Newly Established Teaching Centre; Experience from Pakistan

Abstract Introduction Healthcare associated infection (HAI) is global health problem and main reasons behind these infections are suboptimal infection control practices along with excessive antibiotics consumption [1]. On the other hand, environmental factors including inadequate ventilation, bed spacing, contaminated water supply, environmental surfaces and improper disposal of waste are other concerns. The HAI risk can be minimized by implementation of infection prevention and control program, which is comprised of activities directed to dig out problems and applying various techniques to bring about a change in healthcare workers attitude in order to improve infection control practices [2].In the last decade infection prevention and control at hospital has been significantly improved globally. Measures such as hand hygiene, environmental cleaning, culture based screening are implemented in order to minimize hospital stay, morbidity and mortality. Objective The study was conducted to compare the difference in infection control at our hospital before and after taking measurement at our newly established centre. Material and Method It was an analytical cross-sectional study carried out at our new campus. The study was conducted from February 2018 to January 2019.Ethical approval was taken from research committee prior to the study and informed consent was taken from the patients and staff. The study was fabricated in two phases i.e. initial and later six months of hospital establishment. Based on the results obtained in the initial six months, we assigned an infection control team, along with facilitation of training sessions for our staff. Culture samples were taken from patients, patient’s rooms, patient’s wards, accessories inside the patient’s room, from counters and corridors. Blood cultures were performed using the BACTEC blood culture system. Organisms were identified according to routine bacteriological procedures and disc diffusion method was used for interpreting antibiotic susceptibility. Data were included cultures reports taken from the laboratory. For statistical analysis, SPSS version 23.0 was used. Descriptive statistics was applied for categorical variables and Chi square test was used to observe the association with significance level as p=&amp;lt;0.05. Results A total of 1151 cultures were sent including patients, staff and environmental cultures. Out of which 681 (59%) were sent in initial phase and 470 (41%) were sent in later phase. The number of samples sent in initial and later phase and its distribution is depicted in Table 1. The growth of organisms was observed in initial and later phase from the samples and it was found out that there was increased rate of fungal growth in environment cultures in initial and later phase. In majority of the patient’s samples, no bacterial growth was reported in initial and later phase. (Table 2)Overall, absence of any organisms was found to be statistically same in both phases. However, bacterial and fungal growth reduced in later than the initial phase and the reduction in fungal growth was statistically significant as shown in Table 3 The samples taken from the patients and environment in initial and later phase were compared and are depicted in table 4. The growth of organism from the environment, accessories inside the patient’s room, nursing counter, and patients was found statistically non-significant. Conclusion Our study revealed that the number of organisms isolated in initial phase was greater than the later phase but the reduction was not significant. Bringing about a change in healthcare workers attitude is always a big challenge. Constant reinforcement is impending for compliance of healthcare professionals towards infection control and prevention. Referernces 1) Shelanah A. Fernando GT, Thomas G. Healthcare-acquired infections: prevention strategies. Int J Gen Med 2017; 47:1341-51. 2) Lee MH, Lee GA, Lee SH, Park YH. Effectiveness and core components of infection prevention and control programmes in long-term care facilities: a systematic review. J Hosp Infect 2019; 102: 377-393

Anthropogenic disturbance affects specialist, but not generalist, endophagous insects associated with two African grasses: implications for biological control

ABSTRACT The specialisation-disturbance hypothesis (SDH) predicts that specialist and generalist taxa respond differently to disturbance, with generalists more tolerant of disturbance, while habitat stability (i.e. no/limited disturbance) should favour specialist species. If the SDH holds true, this would have implications for the design and implementation of biological control programmes, in terms of performing native-range surveys in search of candidate agents and subsequent development of management programmes for their release in the weeds invaded range. We assessed the effect of anthropogenic disturbance (mowing/slashing and fire) on the endophagous insect communities associated with two African grasses, Sporobolus pyramidalis and Sporobolus natalensis (Poaceae), that are targets for biological control in Australia. Comparisons, of insect community structure and presence/abundance of each species between disturbed and undisturbed sites, were made at 19 sites in South Africa. Disturbance caused a shift in insect species composition and abundance, whereby specialist insects were less frequently encountered and less abundant at disturbed versus undisturbed sites. If the potential agents for Sporobolus spp. are released in Australia they may be negatively affected by disturbance and may therefore be incompatible with certain integrated management strategies, such as mowing and prescribed burning. Moreover, our results suggest that field sites with limited disturbance should be prioritised during native-range surveys to maximise the chances of locating specialist natural enemies. The effect disturbance has on insect community composition may be particularly relevant for the biological control of invasive grasses, due to the intensity of disturbance of grasslands worldwide.